Cyclic amide bioisosterism: strategic application to the design and synthesis of HCV NS5B polymerase inhibitors.

Conformational modeling has been successfully applied to the design of cyclic bioisosteres used to replace a conformationally rigid amide bond in a series of thiophene carboxylate inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase. Select compounds were equipotent with the original amide series. Single-point mutant binding studies, in combination with inhibition structure-activity relationships, suggest this new series interacts at the Thumb-II domain of NS5B. Inhibitor binding at the Thumb-II site was ultimately confirmed by solving a crystal structure of 8b complexed with NS5B.

GT-1a or GT-1b subtype-specific resistance profiles for hepatitis C virus inhibitors telaprevir and HCV-796.

In vitro, telaprevir selects subtype-specific resistance pathways for hepatitis C virus GT-1a and GT-1b, as described to have occurred in patients. In GT-1a, the HCV-796 resistance mutation C316Y has low replication capacity (7%) that can be compensated for by the emergence of the mutation L392F or M414T, resulting in an increase in replication levels of > or = 10-fold.

Modulation of alpha interferon anti-hepatitis C virus activity by ISG15.

ISG15 has recently been reported to possess antiviral properties against viruses, both in vivo and in vitro. Knock-down of ISG15 gene expression by small interfering RNA followed by alpha interferon (IFN-alpha) treatment in Huh-7 cells resulted in an increased phenotypic sensitivity to IFN-alpha, as determined by measuring hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA replication inhibition in stably transfected HCV replicon cells and in cells infected with genotype 1a HCVcc (infectious HCV). This IFN-alpha-specific effect, which was not observed with IFN-gamma, correlated with an increase in expression of the IFN-alpha-inducible genes IFI6, IFITM3, OAS1 and MX1, whereas the expression of the non-IFN-alpha-inducible genes PTBP-1 and JAK1 remained unchanged. It has previously been reported that, unlike ISG15 knock-down, increased sensitivity to IFN-alpha after knock-down of USP18 occurs through the prolonged phosphorylation of STAT-1. Combination knock-down of ISG15 and USP18 resulted in a moderate increase in IFN-alpha-inducible gene expression compared with single ISG15 or USP18 knock-down. Furthermore, the phenotype of increased gene expression after ISG15 knock-down and IFN-alpha treatment was also observed in non-hepatic cell lines A549 and HeLa. Taken together, these results reveal a novel function for ISG15 in the regulation of the IFN-alpha pathway and its antiviral effect.

The application of phosphoramidate ProTide technology to the potent anti-HCV compound 4'-azidocytidine (R1479).

We report the design, synthesis and evaluation of a family of ca 50 phosphoramidate ProTides of the potent anti-HCV compound 4'-azidocytidine (R1479), with variation on the ester, amino acid and aryl moiety of the ProTide. Sub-muM inhibitors of HCV emerge. The compounds are all non-cytotoxic in the replicon assay. We herein report detailed SARs for each of the regions of the ProTide.

3-Hydroxyisoquinolines as inhibitors of HCV NS5b RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

Isoquinoline-based non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV NS5b RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase are described. The synthesis and structure-activity relationships are detailed, along with enzyme and cellular activity.

Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase. Part 1: Synthetic and computational exploration of the binding modes of benzothiadiazine and 1,4-benzothiazine HCV NS5b polymerase inhibitors.

The importance of internal hydrogen bonding in a series of benzothiadiazine and 1,4-benzothiazine NS5b inhibitors has been explored. Computational analysis has been used to compare the protonated vs. anionic forms of each series and we demonstrate that activity against HCV NS5b polymerase is best explained using the anionic forms. The syntheses and structure-activity relationships for a variety of new analogs are also discussed.

Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV polymerase NS5B. Part 4: structure-based design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of benzo[d]isothiazole-1,1-dioxides.

A series of benzo[d]isothiazole-1,1-dioxides were designed and evaluated as inhibitors of HCV polymerase NS5B. Structure-based design led to the incorporation of a high affinity methyl sulfonamide group. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies of this series revealed analogues with submicromolar potencies in the HCV replicon assay and moderate pharmacokinetic properties. SAR studies combined with structure based drug design focused on the sulfonamide region led to a novel and potent cyclic analogue.

Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV polymerase NS5B. Part 2: Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of benzothiazine-substituted quinolinediones.

A new series of benzothiazine-substituted quinolinediones were evaluated as inhibitors of HCV polymerase NS5B. SAR studies on this series revealed a methyl sulfonamide group as a high affinity feature. Analogues with this group showed submicromolar potencies in the HCV cell based replicon assay. Pharmacokinetic and toxicology studies were also performed on a selected compound (34) to evaluate in vivo properties of this new class of inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase.

Non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV polymerase NS5B. Part 3: synthesis and optimization studies of benzothiazine-substituted tetramic acids.

Benzothiazine-substituted tetramic acids were discovered as highly potent non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase. X-ray crystallography studies confirmed the binding mode of these inhibitors with HCV NS5B polymerase. Rational optimization of time dependent inactivation of CYP 3A4 and clearance was accomplished by incorporation of electron-withdrawing groups to the benzothiazine core.

The hepatitis C virus replicon presents a higher barrier to resistance to nucleoside analogs than to nonnucleoside polymerase or protease inhibitors.

Specific inhibitors of hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication that target the NS3/4A protease (e.g., VX-950) or the NS5B polymerase (e.g., R1479/R1626, PSI-6130/R7128, NM107/NM283, and HCV-796) have advanced into clinical development. Treatment of patients with VX-950 or HCV-796 rapidly selected for drug-resistant variants after a 14-day monotherapy treatment period. However, no viral resistance was identified after monotherapy with R1626 (prodrug of R1479) or NM283 (prodrug of NM107) after 14 days of monotherapy. Based upon the rapid selection of resistance to the protease and nonnucleoside inhibitors during clinical trials and the lack of selection of resistance to the nucleoside inhibitors, we used the replicon system to determine whether nucleoside inhibitors demonstrate a higher genetic barrier to resistance than protease and nonnucleoside inhibitors. Treatment of replicon cells with nucleoside inhibitors at 10 and 15 times the 50% effective concentration resulted in clearance of the replicon, while treatment with a nonnucleoside or protease inhibitor selected resistant colonies. In combination, the presence of a nucleoside inhibitor reduced the frequency of colonies resistant to the other classes of inhibitors. These results indicate that the HCV replicon presents a higher barrier to the selection of resistance to nucleoside inhibitors than to nonnucleoside or protease inhibitors. Furthermore, the combination of a nonnucleoside or protease inhibitor with a nucleoside polymerase inhibitor could have a clear clinical benefit through the delay of resistance emergence.

Existence of hepatitis C virus NS5B variants naturally resistant to non-nucleoside, but not to nucleoside, polymerase inhibitors among untreated patients.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize the effect of hepatitis C virus (HCV) polymerase intrinsic genetic heterogeneity on the inhibitory activity of nucleoside and non-nucleoside HCV polymerase inhibitors. METHODS: The sensitivity of genotype (GT) 1 HCV NS5B clinical isolates from treatment-naive patients to nucleoside and non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitors was assessed. The genetic diversity at the population level, as well as that of their quasispecies, was correlated with the observed reduced sensitivity to inhibitors. RESULTS: R1479 and NM107 (nucleoside analogues that have entered Phase 2 clinical trials as prodrugs R1626 and NM283, respectively) were similarly active across the tested clinical isolates. Resistance mutations to nucleoside analogues were not observed in any of the isolates. However, the activity of the non-nucleoside thumb II inhibitor NNI-1, palm I inhibitors NNI-2 and NNI-3, and palm II inhibitor HCV-796 was reduced across different isolates. This reduction in inhibitory activity for non-nucleoside inhibitors (NNIs) was, in most cases, correlated with the existence of known NNI resistance mutations in the NS5B polymerase population of the clinical isolates, as detected by population sequencing. Resistance mutations to NNIs were also observed at a low frequency within the clinical isolates' viral quasispecies that allowed for their rapid selection upon drug selective pressure. CONCLUSIONS: The higher frequency of known NNI resistance mutations or polymorphisms known to affect their antiviral potency when compared with the lack of detection of resistance mutations to the nucleoside analogues suggests a potential for primary reduced responsiveness as well as faster development of clinically significant resistance.

First example of phosphoramidate approach applied to a 4'-substituted purine nucleoside (4'-azidoadenosine): conversion of an inactive nucleoside to a submicromolar compound versus hepatitis C virus.

We report on the synthesis of the anti hepatitis C virus (HCV) agent 4'-azidoadenosine (1) and the application of the phosphoramidate ProTide technology to this nucleoside. The synthesis of 1 was achieved through an epoxide intermediate followed by regio- and stereoselective ring opening by azidotrimethylsilane in the presence of a Lewis acid. Compound 1 did not inhibit HCV replication in cell culture at concentrations up to 0.1 mM. However, a submicromolar active agent could be derived from 1 by the application of the ProTide technology. All the phosphoramidates prepared were L-alanine derivatives with variations in the aryl moiety and in the ester part of the amino acid. The benzyl ester and the l-naphthyl phosphate (18) had the best activity in replicon assay. Phosphoramidates (18-21) achieved a significant improvement in antiviral potency over the parent nucleoside (1) with no increase in cytotoxicity.

Application of the phosphoramidate ProTide approach to 4'-azidouridine confers sub-micromolar potency versus hepatitis C virus on an inactive nucleoside.

We report the application of our phosphoramidate ProTide technology to the ribonucleoside analogue 4'-azidouridine to generate novel antiviral agents for the inhibition of hepatitis C virus (HCV). 4'-Azidouridine did not inhibit HCV, although 4'-azidocytidine was a potent inhibitor of HCV replication under similar assay conditions. However 4'-azidouridine triphosphate was a potent inhibitor of RNA synthesis by HCV polymerase, raising the question as to whether our phosphoramidate ProTide approach could effectively deliver 4'-azidouridine monophosphate to HCV replicon cells and unleash the antiviral potential of the triphosphate. Twenty-two phosphoramidates were prepared, including variations in the aryl, ester, and amino acid regions. A number of compounds showed sub-micromolar inhibition of HCV in cell culture without detectable cytotoxicity. These results confirm that phosphoramidate ProTides can deliver monophosphates of ribonucleoside analogues and suggest a potential path to the generation of novel antiviral agents against HCV infection. The generic message is that ProTide synthesis from inactive parent nucleosides may be a warranted drug discovery strategy.

In vitro selection of resistance to sofosbuvir in HCV replicons of genotype-1 to -6.

BACKGROUND: Sofosbuvir is a nucleoside analogue inhibitor of the HCV NS5B polymerase approved for treatment of HCV-infected patients in combination with ribavirin or with other antivirals. It has activity against all genotypes of HCV. Resistance to sofosbuvir in genotype-1 and -2 HCV is conferred by the S282T substitution in NS5B. METHODS: To begin to define the correlates of resistance to sofosbuvir in other genotypes, we performed selection experiments in cell culture using cell lines containing subgenomic replicons derived from genotypes-1b, -2a, -3a and -4a, or chimeric replicons in a genotype-1b background but encoding genotype-2b, -5a and -6a NS5B polymerase. RESULTS: In every case, S282T was selected following passage in the presence of increasing concentrations of sofosbuvir for 10 to 15 weeks. When introduced as a site-directed mutant, S282T conferred reductions in sofosbuvir susceptibility of between 2.4 and 19.4-fold. Other substitutions observed during the selections had relatively less impact on susceptibility, such as N237S in genotype-6a (2.5-fold). Replication capacity was affected by the introduction of S282T in all genotypes to variable extents (3.2% to 22% of wild type). CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm that S282T is the primary sofosbuvir resistance-associated substitution and that replication capacity is reduced when it is present in all genotypes of HCV.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa-specific IgG1 and IgG2 subclasses in enhancement of pulmonary clearance following passive immunisation in the rat.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic Gram-negative pathogen, which causes serious debilitating infections in patients with compromised lung function. The mechanism by which P. aeruginosa is cleared from the lung is not fully defined, although our previous studies have established a role for cellular immunity in protection against P. aeruginosa infections. This study aimed to evaluate the role of P. aeruginosa-specific IgG in protection against P. aeruginosa in a rat model of acute pulmonary infection. Immunoaffinity chromatography was used to purify total rat IgG from rat immune serum (rats immunised with P. aeruginosa) and non-immune serum. Untreated recipient rats were injected intravenously with different concentrations of pure IgG prepared from serum of unimmunised rats (non-immune IgG) or from rats immunised intestinally with killed P. aeruginosa (immune IgG) and infected intratracheally with P. aeruginosa 18 h later. The protective capability of the purified IgG against P. aeruginosa was assessed by measurement of reduction in P. aeruginosa infection in the lung 4 h after instillation of bacteria. Enhanced bacterial clearance induced by IgG was determined to be dose-dependent with a 1 mg dose failing to enhance clearance, whereas 5 mg of immune IgG enhanced clearance from the airways and the lung tissue. Measurement of the IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b isotypes in serum and the lung lavage following transfer of P. aeruginosa-specific IgG found that all three were present. These results demonstrate that anti-P. aeruginosa IgG can enhance bacterial clearance from the airways in an acute infection and identify an important role for IgG in acute respiratory infections caused by P. aeruginosa.

Discovery of N-[4-[6-tert-butyl-5-methoxy-8-(6-methoxy-2-oxo-1H-pyridin-3-yl)-3-quinolyl]phenyl]methanesulfonamide (RG7109), a potent inhibitor of the hepatitis C virus NS5B polymerase.

In the past few years, there have been many advances in the efforts to cure patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV). The ultimate goal of these efforts is to develop a combination therapy consisting of only direct-antiviral agents (DAAs). In this paper, we discuss our efforts that led to the identification of a bicyclic template with potent activity against the NS5B polymerase, a critical enzyme on the life cycle of HCV. In continuation of our exploration to improve the stilbene series, the 3,5,6,8-tetrasubstituted quinoline core was identified as replacement of the stilbene moiety. 6-Methoxy-2(1H)-pyridone was identified among several heterocyclic headgroups to have the best potency. Solubility of the template was improved by replacing a planar aryl linker with a saturated pyrrolidine. Profiling of the most promising compounds led to the identification of quinoline 41 (RG7109), which was selected for advancement to clinical development.

Development and characterization of a replicon-based phenotypic assay for assessing HCV NS4B from clinical isolates.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS4B inhibitors have shown potent inhibition of HCV replication in vitro. To assess the effect of viral diversity on the susceptibility to NS4B inhibitors, genotype (GT)-specific GT1a and GT1b replicon shuttle vectors were designed and created for cloning HCV NS4B genes from clinical isolates. For the GT1b NS4B shuttle vector, the S2204I adaptive mutation was introduced in NS5A to improve replication due to the replacement of the K1846T adaptive mutation in NS4B with NS4B from the clinical isolates. In addition to the adaptive mutations, a newly identified Huh-7 cell line, Huh-7-1C, which is highly permissive for both GT1a and GT1b replication, was used to further enhance the replication levels. HCV NS4B gene from clinical isolates was amplified and inserted into the corresponding GT1a and GT1b modified lab strain chimeric replicons. GT1a and GT1b chimeric replicons expressing diverse NS4B genes from corresponding subtypes of clinical isolates replicated at highly efficient levels for phenotypic analysis. Due to natural variation in their amino acid residues in NS4B, these isolates displayed varying drug susceptibilities to an NS4B inhibitor. In mixed populations with wild-type, the sensitivity of resistance detection of NS4B resistant mutants H94R and V105M was between 20% and 80%. The chimeric shuttle vectors can be used to characterize the activity of antiviral drugs targeting NS4B from diverse natural clinical isolates and aid in the development of novel compounds against HCV NS4B.

Discovery of a novel series of potent non-nucleoside inhibitors of hepatitis C virus NS5B.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major global public health problem. While the current standard of care, a direct-acting antiviral (DAA) protease inhibitor taken in combination with pegylated interferon and ribavirin, represents a major advancement in recent years, an unmet medical need still exists for treatment modalities that improve upon both efficacy and tolerability. Toward those ends, much effort has continued to focus on the discovery of new DAAs, with the ultimate goal to provide interferon-free combinations. The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme NS5B represents one such DAA therapeutic target for inhibition that has attracted much interest over the past decade. Herein, we report the discovery and optimization of a novel series of inhibitors of HCV NS5B, through the use of structure-based design applied to a fragment-derived starting point. Issues of potency, pharmacokinetics, and early safety were addressed in order to provide a clinical candidate in fluoropyridone 19.

The design, synthesis, and antiviral activity of 4'-azidocytidine analogues against hepatitis C virus replication: the discovery of 4'-azidoarabinocytidine.

4'-Azidocytidine 3 (R1479) has been previously discovered as a potent and selective inhibitor of HCV replication targeting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of hepatitis C virus, NS5B. Here we describe the synthesis and biological evaluation of several derivatives of 4'-azidocytidine by varying the substituents at the ribose 2' and 3'-positions. The most potent compound in this series is 4'-azidoarabinocytidine with an IC(50) of 0.17 microM in the genotype 1b subgenomic replicon system. The structure-activity relationships within this series of nucleoside analogues are discussed.

The design, synthesis, and antiviral activity of monofluoro and difluoro analogues of 4'-azidocytidine against hepatitis C virus replication: the discovery of 4'-azido-2'-deoxy-2'-fluorocytidine and 4'-azido-2'-dideoxy-2',2'-difluorocytidine.

The discovery of 4'-azidocytidine (3) (R1479) (J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 3793; Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2007, 17, 2570) as a potent inhibitor of RNA synthesis by NS5B (EC(50) = 1.28 microM), the RNA polymerase encoded by hepatitis C virus (HCV), has led to the synthesis and biological evaluation of several monofluoro and difluoro derivatives of 4'-azidocytidine. The most potent compounds in this series were 4'-azido-2'-deoxy-2',2'-difluorocytidine and 4'-azido-2'-deoxy-2'-fluoroarabinocytidine with antiviral EC(50) of 66 nM and 24 nM in the HCV replicon system, respectively. The structure-activity relationships within this series were discussed, which led to the discovery of these novel nucleoside analogues with the most potent compound, showing more than a 50-fold increase in antiviral potency as compared to 4'-azidocytidine (3).