Enzymatic assembly of carbon-carbon bonds via iron-catalysed sp3 C-H functionalization.

Although abundant in organic molecules, carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds are typically considered unreactive and unavailable for chemical manipulation. Recent advances in C-H functionalization technology have begun to transform this logic, while emphasizing the importance of and challenges associated with selective alkylation at a sp3 carbon1,2. Here we describe iron-based catalysts for the enantio-, regio- and chemoselective intermolecular alkylation of sp3 C-H bonds through carbene C-H insertion. The catalysts, derived from a cytochrome P450 enzyme in which the native cysteine axial ligand has been substituted for serine (cytochrome P411), are fully genetically encoded and produced in bacteria, where they can be tuned by directed evolution for activity and selectivity. That these proteins activate iron, the most abundant transition metal, to perform this chemistry provides a desirable alternative to noble-metal catalysts, which have dominated the field of C-H functionalization1,2. The laboratory-evolved enzymes functionalize diverse substrates containing benzylic, allylic or α-amino C-H bonds with high turnover and excellent selectivity. Furthermore, they have enabled the development of concise routes to several natural products. The use of the native iron-haem cofactor of these enzymes to mediate sp3 C-H alkylation suggests that diverse haem proteins could serve as potential catalysts for this abiological transformation, and will facilitate the development of new enzymatic C-H functionalization reactions for applications in chemistry and synthetic biology.

One-pot chemoenzymatic syntheses of non-canonical amino acids.

Despite their prevalent use in drug discovery and protein biochemistry, non-canonical amino acids are still challenging to synthesize through purely chemical means. In recent years, biocatalysis has emerged as a transformative paradigm for small-molecule synthesis. One strategy to further empower biocatalysis is to use it in combination with modern chemical reactions and take advantage of the strengths of each method to enable access to challenging structural motifs that were previously unattainable using each method alone. In this Mini-Review, we highlight several recent case studies that feature the synergistic use of chemical and enzymatic transformations in one pot to synthesize novel non-canonical amino acids. ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARY: This Mini-Review highlights several recent case studies that feature the synergistic use of chemical and enzymatic transformations in one pot to synthesize novel non-canonical amino acids.

Optical Control of Proteasomal Protein Degradation with a Photoswitchable Lipopeptide.

Photolipids have emerged as attractive tools for the optical control of lipid functions. They often contain an azobenzene photoswitch that imparts a cis double-bond upon irradiation. Herein, we present the application of photoswitching to a lipidated natural product, the potent proteasome inhibitor cepafungin I. Several azobenzene-containing lipids were attached to the cyclopeptide core, yielding photoswitchable derivatives. Most notably, PhotoCep4 exhibited a 10-fold higher cellular potency in its light-induced cis-form, matching the potency of natural cepafungin I. The length of the photolipid tail and distal positioning of the azobenzene photoswitch with respect to the macrocycle is critical for this activity. In a proteome-wide experiment, light-triggered PhotoCep4 modulation showed high overlap with constitutively active cepafungin I. The mode of action was studied using crystallography and revealed an identical binding of the cyclopeptide in comparison to cepafungin I, suggesting that differences in their cellular activity originate from switching the tail structure. The photopharmacological approach described herein could be applicable to many other natural products as lipid conjugation is common and often necessary for potent activity. Such lipids are often introduced late in synthetic routes, enabling facile chemical modifications.

Engineering Catalytically Self-Sufficient P450s.

The P450 superfamily comprises some of the most powerful and versatile enzymes for the site-selective oxidation of small molecules. One of the main drawbacks for the applications of the P450s in biotechnology is that the majority of these enzymes is multicomponent in nature and requires the presence of suitable redox partners to support their functions. Nevertheless, the discovery of several self-sufficient P450s, namely those from Classes VII and VIII, has served as an inspiration for fusion approaches to generate chimeric P450 systems that are self-sufficient. In this Perspective, we highlight the domain organizations of the Class VII and Class VIII P450 systems, summarize recent case studies in the engineering of catalytically self-sufficient P450s based on these systems, and outline outstanding challenges in the field, along with several emerging technologies as potential solutions.

Charting the Evolution of Chemoenzymatic Strategies in the Syntheses of Complex Natural Products.

Bolstered by recent advances in bioinformatics, genetics, and enzyme engineering, the field of chemoenzymatic synthesis has enjoyed a rapid increase in popularity and utility. This Perspective explores the integration of enzymes into multistep chemical syntheses, highlighting the unique potential of biocatalytic transformations to streamline the synthesis of complex natural products. In particular, we identify four primary conceptual approaches to chemoenzymatic synthesis and illustrate each with a number of landmark case studies. Future opportunities and challenges are also discussed.

Remote B-Ring Oxidation of Sclareol with an Engineered P450 Facilitates Divergent Access to Complex Terpenoids.

Though chiral pool synthesis is widely accepted as a powerful strategy in complex molecule synthesis, the effectiveness of the approach is intimately linked to the range of available chiral building blocks and the functional groups they possess. To date, there is still a pressing need for new remote functionalization methods that would allow the installation of useful chemical handles on these building blocks to enable a broader spectrum of synthetic manipulations. Herein, we report the engineering of a P450BM3 variant for the regioselective C-H oxidation of sclareol at C6. The synthetic utility of the resulting product was demonstrated in a formal synthesis of ansellone B, the first total synthesis of the 2,3-seco-labdane excolide B, and a model study toward (+)-pallavicinin.

Concise Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Gedunin.

The limonoids have attracted significant attention from the synthetic community owing to their striking structural complexity and medicinal potential. Recent efforts notwithstanding, synthetic access to many intact or ring D-seco limonoids still remains elusive. Here, we report the first de novo synthesis of gedunin, a ring D-seco limonoid with HSP90 inhibitory activity, that proceeds in 13 steps. Two enabling features in our strategy are the application of modern catalytic transformations to set the key quaternary centers in the carbocyclic core and the use of biocatalytic oxidation at C3 to establish a chemical handle to access the A-ring enone motif. The strategy presented herein may provide an entry point to a wider range of oxidized limonoids.

Reinvigorating the Chiral Pool: Chemoenzymatic Approaches to Complex Peptides and Terpenoids.

Biocatalytic transformations that leverage the selectivity and efficiency of enzymes represent powerful tools for the construction of complex natural products. Enabled by innovations in genome mining, bioinformatics, and enzyme engineering, synthetic chemists are now more than ever able to develop and employ enzymes to solve outstanding chemical problems, one of which is the reliable and facile generation of stereochemistry within natural product scaffolds. In recognition of this unmet need, our group has sought to advance novel chemoenzymatic strategies to both expand and reinvigorate the chiral pool. Broadly defined, the chiral pool comprises cheap, enantiopure feedstock chemicals that serve as popular foundations for asymmetric total synthesis. Among these building blocks, amino acids and enantiopure terpenes, whose core structures can be mapped onto several classes of structurally and pharmaceutically intriguing natural products, are of particular interest to the synthetic community.In this Account, we summarize recent efforts from our group in leveraging biocatalytic transformations to expand the chiral pool, as well as efforts toward the efficient application of these transformations in natural products total synthesis, the ultimate testing ground for any novel methodology. First, we describe several examples of enzymatic generation of noncanonical amino acids as means to simplify the synthesis of peptide natural products. By extracting amino acid hydroxylases from native biosynthetic pathways, we obtain efficient access to hydroxylated variants of proline, lysine, arginine, and their derivatives. The newly installed hydroxyl moiety then becomes a chemical handle that can facilitate additional complexity generation, thereby expanding the pool of amino acid-derived building blocks available for peptide synthesis. Next, we present our efforts in enzymatic C-H oxidations of diverse terpene scaffolds, in which traditional chemistry can be combined with strategic applications of biocatalysis to selectively and efficiently derivatize several commercial terpenoid skeletons. The synergistic logic of this approach enables a small handful of synthetic intermediates to provide access to a plethora of terpenoid natural product families. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the advantages of applying enzymes in total synthesis in conjunction with established methodologies, as well as toward the expansion of the chiral pool to enable facile incorporation of stereochemistry during synthetic campaigns.

A Chiral-Pool-Based Strategy to Access trans-syn-Fused Drimane Meroterpenoids: Chemoenzymatic Total Syntheses of Polysin, N-Acetyl-polyveoline and the Chrodrimanins.

trans-syn-Fused drimane meroterpenoids are unique natural products that arise from contra-thermodynamic polycyclizations of their polyene precursors. Herein we report the first total syntheses of four trans-syn-fused drimane meroterpenoids, namely polysin, N-acetyl-polyveoline, chrodrimanin C, and verruculide A, in 7-18 steps from sclareolide. The trans-syn-fused drimane unit is accessed through an efficient acid-mediated C9 epimerization of sclareolide. Subsequent applications of enzymatic C-H oxidation and contemporary annulation methodologies install the requisite C3 hydroxyl group and enable rapid generation of structural complexity to provide concise access to these natural products.

Modular Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of GE81112 B1 and Related Analogues Enables Elucidation of Its Key Pharmacophores.

The GE81112 complex has garnered much interest due to its broad antimicrobial properties and unique ability to inhibit bacterial translation initiation. Herein we report the use of a chemoenzymatic strategy to complete the first total synthesis of GE81112 B1. By pairing iron and α-ketoglutarate dependent hydroxylases found in GE81112 biosynthesis with traditional synthetic methodology, we were able to access the natural product in 11 steps (longest linear sequence). Following this strategy, 10 GE81112 B1 analogues were synthesized, allowing for identification of its key pharmacophores. A key feature of our medicinal chemistry effort is the incorporation of additional biocatalytic hydroxylations in modular analogue synthesis to rapidly enable exploration of relevant chemical space.

Practical Enzymatic Production of Carbocycles.

The Pd-catalyzed carbon-carbon bond formation pioneered by Heck in 1969 has dominated medicinal chemistry development for the ensuing fifty years. As the demand for more complex three-dimensional active pharmaceuticals continues to increase, preparative enzyme-mediated assembly, by virtue of its exquisite selectivity and sustainable nature, is poised to provide a practical and affordable alternative for accessing such compounds. In this minireview, we summarize recent state-of-the-art developments in practical enzyme-mediated assembly of carbocycles. When appropriate, background information on the enzymatic transformation is provided and challenges and/or limitations are also highlighted.

Concise Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Fasamycin A.

We report the development of a chemoenzymatic approach toward fasamycin A, a halogenated naphthacenoid that exhibits activities against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis. The synthesis was accomplished in a convergent manner: two fragments were combined together in a Sammes annulation to afford a dimethylnaphthacenone system. Finally, an enzymatic halogenation was employed to introduce the requisite chlorine substituent of the natural product at a late stage.

Regiodivergent Biocatalytic Hydroxylation of L-Glutamine Facilitated by Characterization of Non-Heme Dioxygenases from Non-Ribosomal Peptide Biosyntheses.

We report the functional characterization of two iron- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases that are capable of hydroxylating free-standing glutamine at its C3 and C4 position respectively. In particular, the C4 hydroxylase, Q4Ox, catalyzes the reaction with approximately 4,300 total turnover numbers, facilitating synthesis of a solid-phase compatible building block and stereochemical elucidation at the C4 position of the hydroxylated product. This work will enable the development of novel synthetic strategies to prepare useful glutamine derivatives and stimulate further discoveries of new amino acid hydroxylases with distinct substrate specificities.

Synthetic utility of oxygenases in site-selective terpenoid functionalization.

Terpenoids are one of the largest classes of natural products whose members possess a wide variety of biological activities. With several exceptions, scalable production of complex terpenoids with either purely biological or chemical methods still remains a major challenge. However, recent efforts to combine the two approaches in chemoenzymatic synthesis hold tremendous promise to address this challenge. Central to this paradigm is the development of useful biocatalytic methods, such as regioselective C-H oxidation, for terpene modifications. This review highlights recent applications of biocatalytic hydroxylation for site-selective modification of terpenoids.

Stereoselective Synthesis of ß-Branched Aromatic α-Amino Acids by Biocatalytic Dynamic Kinetic Resolution*.

ß-Branched noncanonical amino acids are valuable molecules in modern drug development efforts. However, they are still challenging to prepare due to the need to set multiple stereocenters in a stereoselective fashion, and contemporary methods for the synthesis of such compounds often rely on the use of rare-transition-metal catalysts with designer ligands. Herein, we report a highly diastereo- and enantioselective biocatalytic transamination method to prepare a broad range of aromatic ß-branched α-amino acids. Mechanistic studies show that the transformation proceeds through dynamic kinetic resolution that is unique to the optimal enzyme. To highlight its utility and practicality, the biocatalytic reaction was applied to the synthesis of several sp3 -rich cyclic fragments and the first total synthesis of jomthonic acid A.

Harnessing the biocatalytic potential of iron- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases in natural product total synthesis.

Covering: up to the end of 2019Iron- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases (Fe/αKGs) represent a versatile and intriguing enzyme family by virtue of their ability to directly functionalize unactivated C-H bonds at the cost of αKG and O2. Fe/αKGs play an important role in the biosynthesis of natural products, valuable biologically active secondary metabolites frequently pursued as drug leads. The field of natural product total synthesis seeks to contruct these molecules as effeciently as possible, although natural products continue to challenge chemists due to their intricate structural complexity. Chemoenzymatic approaches seek to remedy the shortcomings of traditional synthetic methodology by combining Nature's biosynthetic machinery with traditional chemical methods to efficiently construct natural products. Although other oxygenase families have been widely employed for this purpose, Fe/αKGs remain underutilized. The following review will cover recent chemoenzymatic total syntheses involving Fe/αKG enzymes. Additionally, related information involving natural product biosynthesis, methods development, and non-chemoenzymatic total syntheses will be discussed to inform retrosynthetic logic and synthetic design.

Cryptic and Stereospecific Hydroxylation, Oxidation, and Reduction in Platensimycin and Platencin Biosynthesis.

Platensimycin (PTM) and platencin (PTN) are highly functionalized bacterial diterpenoids of ent-kauranol and ent-atiserene biosynthetic origin. C7 oxidation in the B-ring plays a key biosynthetic role in generating structural complexity known for ent-kaurane and ent-atisane derived diterpenoids. While all three oxidation patterns, α-hydroxyl, ß-hydroxyl, and ketone, at C7 are seen in both the ent-kaurane and ent-atisane derived diterpenoids, their biosynthetic origins remain largely unknown. We previously established that PTM and PTN are produced by a single biosynthetic machinery, featuring cryptic C7 oxidations at the B-rings that transform the ent-kauranol and ent-atiserene derived precursors into the characteristic PTM and PTN scaffolds. Here, we report a three-enzyme cascade affording C7 α-hydroxylation in PTM and PTN biosynthesis. Combining in vitro and in vivo studies, we show that PtmO3 and PtmO6 are two functionally redundant α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases that generate a cryptic C7 ß-hydroxyl on each of the ent-kauranol and ent-atiserene scaffolds, and PtmO8 and PtmO1, a pair of NAD+/NADPH-dependent dehydrogenases, subsequently work in concert to invert the C7 ß-hydroxyl to α-hydroxyl via a C7 ketone intermediate. PtmO3 and PtmO6 represent the first dedicated C7 ß-hydroxylases characterized to date and, together with PtmO8 and PtmO1, provide an account for the biosynthetic origins of all three C7 oxidation patterns that may shed light on other B-ring modifications in bacterial, plant, and fungal diterpenoid biosynthesis. Given their unprecedented activities in C7 oxidations, PtmO3, PtmO6, PtmO8, and PtmO1 enrich the growing toolbox of novel enzymes that could be exploited as biocatalysts to rapidly access complex diterpenoid natural products.

Identification of a lysine 4-hydroxylase from the glidobactin biosynthesis and evaluation of its biocatalytic potential.

We present the functional characterization of GlbB, a lysine 4-hydroxylase from the glidobactin biosynthetic gene cluster. Despite its narrow substrate specificity, GlbB is able to catalyze the hydroxylation of l-lysine with excellent total turnover number and complete regio- and diastereoselectivity. The synthetic utility of GlbB is illustrated by its use in the efficient preparation of a key dipeptide fragment of glidobactin.

Efficient Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of (2S,3R)-3-Hydroxy-3-Methylproline, a Key Fragment in Polyoxypeptin A and FR225659.

We report an efficient synthesis of protected (2S,3R)-3-hydroxy-3-methylproline that proceeds in three steps with complete stereoselectivity. This route represents a significant improvement over previous approaches to this noncanonical amino acid. Key to this success is the development of a one-pot chemoenzymatic procedure for the preparation of (2S,3S)-3- methylproline from L-isoleucine. This work lays the foundation for future chemoenzymatic syntheses of polyoxypeptin A and FR225659.

Asymmetric Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of (-)-Podophyllotoxin and Related Aryltetralin Lignans.

(-)-Podophyllotoxin is one of the most potent microtubule depolymerizing agents and has served as an important lead compound in antineoplastic drug discovery. Reported here is a short chemoenzymatic total synthesis of (-)-podophyllotoxin and related aryltetralin lignans. Vital to this approach is the use of an enzymatic oxidative C-C coupling reaction to construct the tetracyclic core of the natural product in a diastereoselective fashion. This strategy allows gram-scale access to (-)-deoxypodophyllotoxin and is readily adaptable to the preparation of related aryltetralin lignans.