Congenital infections as contributors to the onset of diabetes in children: A longitudinal study in the United States, 2001-2017.

BACKGROUND: Maternal infections during pregnancy, particularly with rubella virus, were reported to increase the risk of diabetes in children. Widespread vaccination has decreased the number of infants with congenital rubella syndrome in the United States, although it remains a problem in developing countries. Because vaccine hesitancy has recently increased, we investigated the association between congenital infections with subsequent diabetes risk in children in the United States. METHODS: Using data from a nationwide private health insurer for years 2001-2017, 1 475 587 infants were followed for an average of 3.9 years (maximum 16.5 years). Information was obtained regarding congenital infections (rubella, cytomegalovirus, other congenital infections) and perinatal infections, as well as for the development of diabetes mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis. RESULTS: There were 781 infants with congenital infections and 73 974 with perinatal infections. Diabetes developed in 3334 children. The odds of developing diabetes for infants with congenital rubella infection were 12-fold greater (P = .013) and, for infants with congenital cytomegalovirus infection, were 4-fold greater (P = .011) than infants without congenital or perinatal infection. Infants with other congenital infections had 3-fold greater odds of developing diabetes (P = .044). Results were similar for diabetes ketoacidosis. Infants with other perinatal infections had 49% greater odds of developing diabetes during the follow-up period (P < .001). CONCLUSION: Congenital and other perinatal infections are associated with elevated risks of developing diabetes mellitus during childhood. Vaccination for rubella remains an important preventive action to reduce the incidence of diabetes in children.

Use of Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters in Patients With Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Background: Existing guidelines, including Choosing Wisely recommendations, endorse avoiding placement of peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Objective: To describe the frequency of and characteristics associated with PICC use in hospitalized patients with stage 3b or greater CKD (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] <45 mL/min/1.73 m2). Design: Prospective cohort study. Setting: 52 hospitals participating in the Michigan Hospital Medicine Safety Consortium. Participants: Hospitalized medical patients who received a PICC between November 2013 and September 2016. Measurements: Percentage of patients receiving PICCs who had CKD, frequency of PICC-related complications, and variation in the proportion of PICCs placed in patients with CKD. Results: Of 20 545 patients who had PICCs placed, 4743 (23.1% [95% CI, 20.9% to 25.3%]) had an estimated GFR (eGFR) less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 and 699 (3.4%) were receiving hemodialysis. In the intensive care unit (ICU), 30.9% (CI, 29.7% to 32.2%) of patients receiving PICCs had an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2; the corresponding percentage in wards was 19.3% (CI, 18.8% to 19.9%). Among patients with an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2, multilumen PICCs were placed more frequently than single-lumen PICCs. In wards, PICC-related complications occurred in 15.3% of patients with an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 and in 15.2% of those with an eGFR of 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 or higher. The corresponding percentages in ICU settings were 22.4% and 23.9%. In patients with an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2, PICC placement varied widely across hospitals (interquartile range, 23.7% to 37.8% in ICUs and 12.8% to 23.7% in wards). Limitation: Nephrologist approval for placement could not be determined, and 2.7% of eGFR values were unknown and excluded. Conclusion: In this sample of hospitalized patients who received PICCs, placement in those with CKD was common and not concordant with clinical guidelines. Primary Funding Source: Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan and Blue Care Network.

Excess Antibiotic Treatment Duration and Adverse Events in Patients Hospitalized With Pneumonia: A Multihospital Cohort Study.

Background: Randomized trials demonstrate no benefit from antibiotic treatment exceeding the shortest effective duration. Objective: To examine predictors and outcomes associated with excess duration of antibiotic treatment. Design: Retrospective cohort study. Setting: 43 hospitals in the Michigan Hospital Medicine Safety Consortium. Patients: 6481 general care medical patients with pneumonia. Measurements: The primary outcome was the rate of excess antibiotic treatment duration (excess days per 30-day period). Excess days were calculated by subtracting each patient's shortest effective (expected) treatment duration (based on time to clinical stability, pathogen, and pneumonia classification [community-acquired vs. health care-associated]) from the actual duration. Negative binomial generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used to calculate rate ratios to assess predictors of 30-day rates of excess duration. Patient outcomes, assessed at 30 days via the medical record and telephone calls, were evaluated using logit GEEs that adjusted for patient characteristics and probability of treatment. Results: Two thirds (67.8% [4391 of 6481]) of patients received excess antibiotic therapy. Antibiotics prescribed at discharge accounted for 93.2% of excess duration. Patients who had respiratory cultures or nonculture diagnostic testing, had a longer stay, received a high-risk antibiotic in the prior 90 days, had community-acquired pneumonia, or did not have a total antibiotic treatment duration documented at discharge were more likely to receive excess treatment. Excess treatment was not associated with lower rates of any adverse outcomes, including death, readmission, emergency department visit, or Clostridioides difficile infection. Each excess day of treatment was associated with a 5% increase in the odds of antibiotic-associated adverse events reported by patients after discharge. Limitation: Retrospective design; not all patients could be contacted to report 30-day outcomes. Conclusion: Patients hospitalized with pneumonia often receive excess antibiotic therapy. Excess antibiotic treatment was associated with patient-reported adverse events. Future interventions should focus on whether reducing excess treatment and improving documentation at discharge improves outcomes. Primary Funding Source: Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan (BCBSM) and Blue Care Network as part of the BCBSM Value Partnerships program.

Geospatial Variation in Rotavirus Vaccination in Infants, United States, 2010-2017.

We evaluated rotavirus vaccination rates in the United States by using records from a nationwide health database. From data on 519,697 infants, we found 68.6% received the entire rotavirus vaccine series. We noted pockets of undervaccination in many states, particularly in the Northeast and in some western states.

A Program to Prevent Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection in Acute Care.

BACKGROUND: Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common device-associated infection in hospitals. Both technical factors--appropriate catheter use, aseptic insertion, and proper maintenance--and socioadaptive factors, such as cultural and behavioral changes in hospital units, are important in preventing catheter-associated UTI. METHODS: The national Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program, funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, aimed to reduce catheter-associated UTI in intensive care units (ICUs) and non-ICUs. The main program features were dissemination of information to sponsor organizations and hospitals, data collection, and guidance on key technical and socioadaptive factors in the prevention of catheter-associated UTI. Data on catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates were collected during three phases: baseline (3 months), implementation (2 months), and sustainability (12 months). Multilevel negative binomial models were used to assess changes in catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 926 units (59.7% were non-ICUs, and 40.3% were ICUs) in 603 hospitals in 32 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The unadjusted catheter-associated UTI rate decreased overall from 2.82 to 2.19 infections per 1000 catheter-days. In an adjusted analysis, catheter-associated UTI rates decreased from 2.40 to 2.05 infections per 1000 catheter-days (incidence rate ratio, 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.76 to 0.96; P=0.009). Among non-ICUs, catheter use decreased from 20.1% to 18.8% (incidence rate ratio, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.90 to 0.96; P<0.001) and catheter-associated UTI rates decreased from 2.28 to 1.54 infections per 1000 catheter-days (incidence rate ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.56 to 0.82; P<0.001). Catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates were largely unchanged in ICUs. Tests for heterogeneity (ICU vs. non-ICU) were significant for catheter use (P=0.004) and catheter-associated UTI rates (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A national prevention program appears to reduce catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates in non-ICUs. (Funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.).

Private Insurance Coverage for Diabetes Before and After Enactment of the Preexisting Condition Mandate of the Affordable Care Act, 2005-2016.

OBJECTIVES: To examine private insurance coverage for persons with diabetes before and after enactment of the preexisting condition mandate of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in the United States. METHODS: We conducted a nationwide study in adults aged 20 to 59 years with private health insurance with the Clinformatics Data Mart Database (2005-2016). We used fixed-effects negative binomial regression to evaluate differences in pre-post mandate trends. RESULTS: There was a 4% decline in prevalence rates of type 1 diabetes in adults with private health insurance before the mandate and an 11% increase afterward (P < .001). Coverage increased to the greatest extent (-6% before, +20% after) in those aged 50 to 59 years (P < .001). For type 2 diabetes, there was a significant decline in prevalence before the mandate, which increased afterward in those aged 40 to 49 years (-4% before, 3% after; P = .031) and 50 to 59 years (-6% before, 15% after; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Adults with diabetes may have benefited in obtaining private health insurance after implementation of the preexisting condition mandate of the ACA. Public Health Implications. Efforts to limit enforcement of these protections are likely to contribute to setbacks in access to care.

Duration of Insulin Supply in Type 1 Diabetes: Are 90 Days Better or Worse Than 30 Days?

OBJECTIVE: There have been few studies regarding the duration of insulin prescriptions and patient outcomes. This study evaluated whether A1C varied with the duration of insulin prescription in patients with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: We conducted a longitudinal investigation (from 2001 to 2015) within a nationwide private health insurer. A cohort study was first used to compare A1C after 30-day only, 90-day only, and a combination (30-day and 90-day) of insulin prescriptions. Second, a self-controlled case series was used to compare A1C levels after 30-day versus 90-day prescriptions for the same person. RESULTS: In the cohort study, there were 16,725 eligible patients. Mean A1C was 8.33% for patients with 30-day prescriptions compared to 7.69% for those with 90-day prescriptions and 8.05% for those who had a combination of 30- and 90-day prescriptions (P <0.001). Results were similar when stratified by age and sex. Mean A1C was 7.58% when all prescriptions were mailed versus 8.21% when they were not. In the self-controlled case series, there were 1,712 patients who switched between 30- and 90-day prescriptions. Mean A1C was 7.87% after 30-day prescriptions and 7.69% after 90-day prescriptions (P <0.001). Results were similar when stratified by sex. For this within-person comparison, the results remained significant for those ≥20 years of age (n = 1,536, P <0.001), but not for youth (n = 176, P = 0.972). CONCLUSION: There was a statistically significant but clinically modest decrease in A1C with 90-day versus 30-day insulin prescriptions in adults. A mailed 90-day insulin prescription may be a reasonable choice for adults with type 1 diabetes.

The fear of needles: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of needle fear and summarize the characteristics of individuals who exhibit this fear. BACKGROUND: Injections are among the most common medical procedures, yet fear of needles can result in avoidance of preventive measures and treatment. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE (1966-2017), Embase (1947-2017), PsycINFO (1967-2017), and CINAHL (1961-2017) were searched, with no restrictions by age, gender, race, language, or country. REVIEW METHODS: The prevalence of needle fear was calculated and restricted maximum likelihood random effects models were used for meta-analysis and meta-regression. RESULTS: The search yielded 119 original research articles which are included in this review, of which 35 contained sufficient information for meta-analysis. The majority of children exhibited needle fear, while prevalence estimates for needle fear ranged from 20-50% in adolescents and 20-30% in young adults. In general, needle fear decreased with increasing age. Both needle fear and needle phobia were more prevalent in females than males. Avoidance of influenza vaccination because of needle fear occurred in 16% of adult patients, 27% of hospital employees, 18% of workers at long-term care facilities, and 8% of healthcare workers at hospitals. Needle fear was common when undergoing venipuncture, blood donation, and in those with chronic conditions requiring injection. CONCLUSIONS: Fear of needles is common in patients requiring preventive care and in those undergoing treatment. Greater attention should be directed to interventions which alleviate fear in high-risk groups.

Early Versus Delayed Feeding in Patients With Acute Pancreatitis: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Acute pancreatitis is among the most common and costly reasons for hospitalization in the United States. Bowel rest, pain control, and intravenous fluids are the cornerstones of treatment, but early feeding might also be beneficial. PURPOSE: To compare length of hospital stay, mortality, and readmission in adults hospitalized with pancreatitis who received early versus delayed feeding. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE via Ovid, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, and Web of Science through January 2017. STUDY SELECTION: Two authors independently reviewed and selected studies if they were randomized clinical trials, included adults hospitalized with acute pancreatitis, and compared early versus delayed feeding (≤48 vs. >48 hours after hospitalization). DATA EXTRACTION: Two investigators independently extracted study data and rated risk of bias using the Cochrane Collaboration tool. DATA SYNTHESIS: Eleven randomized trials (8 peer-reviewed publications, 3 abstract-only presentations) that included 948 patients were eligible. Seven trials (3 with low risk of bias) enrolled patients with mild to moderate pancreatitis. Four trials (1 with low risk of bias) included patients with predicted severe pancreatitis. Routes used for early feeding included oral (4 studies), nasogastric (2 studies), nasojejunal (4 studies), and oral or nasoenteric (1 study). Among patients with mild to moderate pancreatitis, early feeding was associated with reduced length of stay in 4 of 7 studies (including 2 of 3 with low risk of bias). Other outcomes were heterogeneous and variably reported, but no study showed an increase in adverse events with early feeding. Among patients with severe pancreatitis, limited evidence revealed no statistically significant difference in outcomes between early and delayed feeding. LIMITATION: Heterogeneity of feeding protocols and outcomes, scant data, and unclear or high risk of bias in several studies. CONCLUSION: Limited data suggest that early feeding in patients with acute pancreatitis does not seem to increase adverse events and, for patients with mild to moderate pancreatitis, may reduce length of hospital stay. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: None. (PROSPERO: CRD42015016193).

Fluctuations in the incidence of type 1 diabetes in the United States from 2001 to 2015: a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: While the United States has the largest number of children with type 1 diabetes mellitus, less is known regarding adult-onset disease. The present study utilizes nationwide data to compare the incidence of type 1 diabetes in youth (0-19 years) to that of adults (20-64 years). METHODS: In this longitudinal study, the Clinformatics® Data Mart Database was used, which contains information from 61 million commercially insured Americans (years 2001-2015). Incidence rates and exact Poisson 95% confidence intervals were calculated by age group, sex, census division, and year of diagnosis. Changes in rates over time were assessed by negative binomial regression. RESULTS: Overall, there were 32,476 individuals who developed type 1 diabetes in the cohort. The incidence rate was greatest in youth aged 10-14 years (45.5 cases/100,000 person-years); however, because adulthood spans over a longer period than childhood, there was a greater number of new cases in adults than in youth (n = 19,174 adults; n = 13,302 youth). Predominance in males was evident by age 10 and persisted throughout adulthood. The male to female incidence rate ratio was 1.32 (95% CI 1.30-1.35). The incidence rate of type 1 diabetes in youth increased by 1.9% annually from 2001 to 2015 (95% CI 1.1-2.7%; P < 0.001), but there was variation across regions. The greatest increases were in the East South Central (3.8%/year; 95% CI 2.0-5.6%; P < 0.001) and Mountain divisions (3.1%/year; 95% CI 1.6-4.6%; P < 0.001). There were also increases in the East North Central (2.7%/year; P = 0.010), South Atlantic (2.4%/year; P < 0.001), and West North Central divisions (2.4%/year; P < 0.001). In adults, however, the incidence decreased from 2001 to 2015 (-1.3%/year; 95% CI -2.3% to -0.4%; P = 0.007). Greater percentages of cases were diagnosed in January, July, and August for both youth and adults. The number of new cases of type 1 diabetes (ages 0-64 years) in the United States is estimated at 64,000 annually (27,000 cases in youth and 37,000 cases in adults). CONCLUSIONS: There are more new cases of type 1 diabetes occurring annually in the United States than previously recognized. The increase in incidence rates in youth, but not adults, suggests that the precipitating factors of youth-onset disease may differ from those of adult-onset disease.

Longitudinal Study of Transfusion Utilization in Hospitalized Veterans.

OBJECTIVE: Although transfusion guidelines have changed considerably over the past two decades, the adoption of patient blood management programs has not been fully realized across hospitals in the United States. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We evaluated trends in red blood cell (RBC), platelet and plasma transfusion at three Veterans Health Administration (VHA) hospitals from 2000 through 2010. RESULTS: There were 176,521 hospitalizations in 69,621 patients; of these, 13.6% of hospitalizations involved transfusion of blood products (12.7% RBCs, 1.4% platelets, 3.0% plasma). Transfusion occurred in 25.2% of surgical and 5.3% of medical hospitalizations. Transfusion use peaked in 2002 for surgical hospitalizations and declined afterwards (p<0.001). There was no significant change in transfusion use over time (p=0.126) for medical hospitalizations. In hospitalizations that involved transfusions, there was a 20.3% reduction in the proportion of hospitalizations in which ≥3 units of RBCs were given (from 51.7% to 41.1%; p<0.001) and a 73.6% increase when one RBC unit was given (from 8.0% to 13.8%; p<0.001) from 2000-2010. Of the hospitalizations with RBC transfusion, 9.6% involved the use of one unit over the entire study period. The most common principal diagnoses for medical patients receiving transfusion were anemia, malignancy, heart failure, pneumonia and renal failure. Over time, transfusion utilization increased in patients who were admitted for infection (p=0.009). CONCLUSION: Blood transfusions in three VHA hospitals have decreased over time for surgical patients but remained the same for medical patients. Further study examining appropriateness of blood products in medical patients appears necessary.

Hospitalization Type and Subsequent Severe Sepsis.

RATIONALE: Hospitalization is associated with microbiome perturbation (dysbiosis), and this perturbation is more severe in patients treated with antimicrobials. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether hospitalizations known to be associated with periods of microbiome perturbation are associated with increased risk of severe sepsis after hospital discharge. METHODS: We studied participants in the U.S. Health and Retirement Study with linked Medicare claims (1998-2010). We measured whether three hospitalization types associated with increasing severity of probable dysbiosis (non-infection-related hospitalization, infection-related hospitalization, and hospitalization with Clostridium difficile infection [CDI]) were associated with increasing risk for severe sepsis in the 90 days after hospital discharge. We used two study designs: the first was a longitudinal design with between-person comparisons and the second was a self-controlled case series design using within-person comparison. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We identified 43,095 hospitalizations among 10,996 Health and Retirement Study-Medicare participants. In the 90 days following non-infection-related hospitalization, infection-related hospitalization, and hospitalization with CDI, adjusted probabilities of subsequent admission for severe sepsis were 4.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.8-4.4%), 7.1% (95% CI, 6.6-7.6%), and 10.7% (95% CI, 7.7-13.8%), respectively. The incidence rate ratio (IRR) of severe sepsis was 3.3-fold greater during the 90 days after hospitalizations than during other observation periods. The IRR was 30% greater after an infection-related hospitalization versus a non-infection-related hospitalization. The IRR was 70% greater after a hospitalization with CDI than an infection-related hospitalization without CDI. CONCLUSIONS: There is a strong dose-response relationship between events known to result in dysbiosis and subsequent severe sepsis hospitalization that is not present for rehospitalization for nonsepsis diagnoses.

Does Stroke Contribute to Racial Differences in Cognitive Decline?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: It is unknown whether blacks' elevated risk of dementia is because of racial differences in acute stroke, the impact of stroke on cognitive health, or other factors. We investigated whether racial differences in cognitive decline are explained by differences in the frequency or impact of incident stroke between blacks and whites, controlling for baseline cognition. METHODS: Among 4908 black and white participants aged ≥65 years free of stroke and cognitive impairment in the nationally representative Health and Retirement Study with linked Medicare data (1998-2010), we examined longitudinal changes in global cognition (modified version of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status) by race, before and after adjusting for time-dependent incident stroke followed by a race-by-incident stroke interaction term, using linear mixed-effects models that included fixed effects of participant demographics, clinical factors, and cognition, and random effects for intercept and slope for time. RESULTS: We identified 34 of 453 (7.5%) blacks and 300 of 4455 (6.7%) whites with incident stroke over a mean (SD) of 4.1 (1.9) years of follow-up (P=0.53). Blacks had greater cognitive decline than whites (adjusted difference in modified version of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status score, 1.47 points; 95% confidence interval, 1.21 to 1.73 points). With further adjustment for cumulative incidence of stroke, the black-white difference in cognitive decline persisted. Incident stroke was associated with a decrease in global cognition (1.21 points; P<0.001) corresponding to ≈7.9 years of cognitive aging. The effect of incident stroke on cognition did not statistically differ by race (P=0.52). CONCLUSIONS: In this population-based cohort of older adults, incident stroke did not explain black-white differences in cognitive decline or impact cognition differently by race.

Comparing the effectiveness of competing tests for reducing colorectal cancer mortality: a network meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Comparative effectiveness data pertaining to competing colorectal cancer (CRC) screening tests do not exist but are necessary to guide clinical decision making and policy. OBJECTIVE: To perform a comparative synthesis of clinical outcomes studies evaluating the effects of competing tests on CRC-related mortality. DESIGN: Traditional and network meta-analyses. Two reviewers identified studies evaluating the effect of guaiac-based fecal occult blood testing (gFOBT), flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS), or colonoscopy on CRC-related mortality. INTERVENTIONS: gFOBT, FS, colonoscopy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Traditional meta-analysis was performed to produce pooled estimates of the effect of each modality on CRC mortality. Bayesian network meta-analysis (NMA) was performed to indirectly compare the effectiveness of screening modalities. Multiple sensitivity analyses were performed. RESULTS: Traditional meta-analysis revealed that, compared with no intervention, colonoscopy reduced CRC-related mortality by 57% (relative risk [RR] 0.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.33-0.58), whereas FS reduced CRC-related mortality by 40% (RR 0.60; 95% CI, 0.45-0.78), and gFOBT reduced CRC-related mortality by 18% (RR 0.82; 95% CI, 0.76-0.88). NMA demonstrated nonsignificant trends favoring colonoscopy over FS (RR 0.71; 95% CI, 0.45-1.11) and FS over gFOBT (RR 0.74; 95% CI, 0.51-1.09) for reducing CRC-related deaths. NMA-based simulations, however, revealed that colonoscopy has a 94% probability of being the most effective test for reducing CRC mortality and a 99% probability of being most effective when the analysis is restricted to screening studies. LIMITATIONS: Randomized trials and observational studies were combined within the same analysis. CONCLUSION: Clinical outcomes studies demonstrate that gFOBT, FS, and colonoscopy are all effective in reducing CRC-related mortality. Network meta-analysis suggests that colonoscopy is the most effective test.

Recent trends in cost-related medication nonadherence among stroke survivors in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: Recent economic and health policy changes may have affected the ability of chronically ill patients to afford their medications. We assessed changes in cost-related nonadherence to medication (CRN) before and after the implementation of Medicare Part D in 2006. METHODS: We used data from the National Health Interview Survey, an annual, population-based survey of community-dwelling, noninstitutionalized US adults, to estimate CRN in 8,673 stroke survivors aged 45 years or older, representing 4.8 million survivors, for the years 1999 to 2010. The main outcome measure was CRN, defined as self-reported inability to afford prescribed medication within the past 12 months. RESULTS: During the period 1999 to 2010, 11.4% of stroke survivors, approximately 543,000 individuals, reported CRN. From 1999 to 2010, CRN more than doubled among stroke survivors aged 45 to 64 years (from 12.7 to 26.5%; ptrend = 0.01). CRN remained stable among those aged 65 years or older (from 3.8 to 7.0%; ptrend = 0.21). From 1999-2005 to 2006-2010, CRN among uninsured stroke survivors aged 45 to 64 years increased from 43.1 to 57.1% (p = 0.03). Among stroke survivors aged 65 years or older with Medicare coverage, CRN was higher among Medicare Part D participants than those without the drug benefit (7.9 vs 4.8%; p = 0.02). After adjustment for sociodemographic and clinical factors, CRN was similar among Medicare Part D enrollees and nonenrollees. INTERPRETATION: From 1999 to 2010, CRN increased significantly among stroke survivors younger than 65 years, particularly among those without health insurance. There was no evidence that Medicare Part D decreased CRN among stroke survivors with Medicare.

Determining the noninfectious complications of indwelling urethral catheters: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Although the epidemiology of catheter-associated urinary tract infection is well-described, little is known about noninfectious complications resulting from urethral catheter use. PURPOSE: To determine the frequency of noninfectious complications after catheterization. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, Conference Papers Index, BIOSIS Previews, Scopus, and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched for human studies without any language limits and through 30 July 2012. STUDY SELECTION: Clinical trials and observational studies assessing noninfectious complications of indwelling urethral catheters in adults. DATA EXTRACTION: Relevant studies were sorted into 3 categories: short-term catheterization in patients without spinal cord injury (SCI), long-term catheterization in patients without SCI, and catheterization in patients with SCI. The proportion of patients who had bladder cancer, bladder stones, blockage, false passage, gross hematuria, accidental removal, urine leakage, or urethral stricture was then pooled using random-effects models. DATA SYNTHESIS: Thirty-seven studies (2868 patients) were pooled. Minor complications were common. For example, the pooled frequency of urine leakage ranged from 10.6% (95% CI, 2.4% to 17.7%) in short-term catheterization cohorts to 52.1% (CI, 28.6% to 69.5%) among outpatients with long-term indwelling catheters. Serious complications were also noted, including urethral strictures, which occurred in 3.4% (CI, 1.0% to 7.0%) of patients with short-term catheterization. For patients with SCI, 13.5% (CI, 3.4% to 21.9%) had gross hematuria and 1.0% (CI, 0.0% to 5.0%) developed bladder cancer. LIMITATIONS: Although heterogeneity existed across studies for several outcomes, most could be accounted for by differences between studies with respect to quality and sex composition. Evidence published after 30 July 2012 is not included. CONCLUSION: Many noninfectious catheter-associated complications are at least as common as clinically significant urinary tract infections. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

Health care-associated infection after red blood cell transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

IMPORTANCE: The association between red blood cell (RBC) transfusion strategies and health care-associated infection is not fully understood. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether RBC transfusion thresholds are associated with the risk of infection and whether risk is independent of leukocyte reduction. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science Core Collection, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Sytematic Reviews, ClinicalTrials.gov, International Clinical Trials Registry, and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number register were searched through January 22, 2014. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized clinical trials with restrictive vs liberal RBC transfusion strategies. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Twenty-one randomized trials with 8735 patients met eligibility criteria, of which 18 trials (n = 7593 patients) contained sufficient information for meta-analyses. DerSimonian and Laird random-effects models were used to report pooled risk ratios. Absolute risks of infection were calculated using the profile likelihood random-effects method. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Incidence of health care-associated infection such as pneumonia, mediastinitis, wound infection, and sepsis. RESULTS: The pooled risk of all serious infections was 11.8% (95% CI, 7.0%-16.7%) in the restrictive group and 16.9% (95% CI, 8.9%-25.4%) in the liberal group. The risk ratio (RR) for the association between transfusion strategies and serious infection was 0.82 (95% CI, 0.72-0.95) with little heterogeneity (I2 = 0%; τ2 <.0001). The number needed to treat (NNT) with restrictive strategies to prevent serious infection was 38 (95% CI, 24-122). The risk of infection remained reduced with a restrictive strategy, even with leukocyte reduction (RR, 0.80 [95% CI, 0.67-0.95]). For trials with a restrictive hemoglobin threshold of <7.0 g/dL, the RR was 0.82 (95% CI, 0.70-0.97) with NNT of 20 (95% CI, 12-133). With stratification by patient type, the RR was 0.70 (95% CI, 0.54-0.91) in patients undergoing orthopedic surgery and 0.51 (95% CI, 0.28-0.95) in patients presenting with sepsis. There were no significant differences in the incidence of infection by RBC threshold for patients with cardiac disease, the critically ill, those with acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding, or for infants with low birth weight. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Among hospitalized patients, a restrictive RBC transfusion strategy was associated with a reduced risk of health care-associated infection compared with a liberal transfusion strategy. Implementing restrictive strategies may have the potential to lower the incidence of health care-associated infection.

Triggers of hospitalization for venous thromboembolism.

BACKGROUND: The rate of hospitalization for venous thromboembolism (VTE) is increasing in the United States. Although predictors of hospital-acquired VTE are well-known, triggers of VTE before hospitalization are not as clearly defined. The objective of this study was to evaluate triggers of hospitalization for VTE. METHODS AND RESULTS: A case-crossover study was conducted. Subjects were participants in the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative sample of older Americans. Data were linked to Medicare files for hospital and nursing home stays, emergency department visits, outpatient visits including physician visits, and home health visits from years 1991 to 2007 (n=16 781). The outcome was hospitalization for venous thromboembolism (n=399). Exposures during the 90-day period before hospitalization for VTE were compared with exposures occurring in 4 comparison periods. Infection was the most common trigger of hospitalization for VTE, occurring in 52.4% of the risk periods before hospitalization. The adjusted incidence rate ratios (IRRs; 95% confidence interval) were 2.90 (2.13, 3.94) for all infection, 2.63 (1.90, 3.63) for infection without a previous hospital or skilled nursing facility stay, and 6.92 (4.46, 10.72) for infection with a previous hospital or skilled nursing facility stay. Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and blood transfusion were also associated with VTE hospitalization (IRR=9.33, 95% confidence interval: 1.19, 73.42; IRR=2.57, 95% confidence interval: 1.17, 5.64; respectively). Other predictors included major surgeries, fractures (IRR=2.81), immobility (IRR=4.23), and chemotherapy (IRR=5.70). These predictors, combined, accounted for a large proportion (69.7%) of exposures before VTE hospitalization as opposed to 35.3% in the comparison periods. CONCLUSIONS: Risk prediction algorithms for VTE should be reevaluated to include infection, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, and blood transfusion.

Depression, antidepressant medications, and risk of Clostridium difficile infection.

BACKGROUND: An ancillary finding in previous research has suggested that the use of antidepressant medications increases the risk of developing Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Our objective was to evaluate whether depression or the use of anti-depressants altered the risk of developing CDI, using two distinct datasets and study designs. METHODS: In Study 1, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of a nationally representative sample of older Americans (n = 16,781), linking data from biennial interviews to physician and emergency department visits, stays in hospital and skilled nursing facilities, home health visits, and other outpatient visits. In Study 2, we completed a clinical investigation of hospitalized adults who were tested for C. difficile (n = 4047), with cases testing positive and controls testing negative. Antidepressant medication use prior to testing was ascertained. RESULTS: The population-based rate of CDI in older Americans was 282.9/100,000 person-years (95% confidence interval (CI)) 226.3 to 339.5) for individuals with depression and 197.1/100,000 person-years for those without depression (95% CI 168.0 to 226.1). The odds of CDI were 36% greater in persons with major depression (95% CI 1.06 to 1.74), 35% greater in individuals with depressive disorders (95% CI 1.05 to 1.73), 54% greater in those who were widowed (95% CI 1.21 to 1.95), and 25% lower in adults who did not live alone (95% CI 0.62 to 0.92). Self-reports of feeling sad or having emotional, nervous or psychiatric problems at baseline were also associated with the later development of CDI. Use of certain antidepressant medications during hospitalization was associated with altered risk of CDI. CONCLUSIONS: Adults with depression and who take specific anti-depressants seem to be more likely to develop CDI. Older adults who are widowed or who live alone are also at greater risk of CDI.

Effect of nonpayment for hospital-acquired, catheter-associated urinary tract infection: a statewide analysis.

BACKGROUND: Most (59% to 86%) hospital-acquired urinary tract infections (UTIs) are catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs). As of 2008, claims data are used to deny payment for certain hospital-acquired conditions, including CAUTIs, and publicly report hospital performance. OBJECTIVE: To examine rates of UTIs in adults that are coded in claims data as hospital-acquired and catheter-associated events and evaluate how often nonpayment for CAUTI lowers hospital payment. DESIGN: Before-and-after study of all-payer cross-sectional claims data. SETTING: 96 nonfederal acute care Michigan hospitals. PATIENTS: Nonobstetric adults discharged in 2007 (n = 767 531) and 2009 (n = 781 343). MEASUREMENTS: Hospital rates of UTIs (categorized as catheter-associated or hospital-acquired) and frequency of reduced payment for hospital-acquired CAUTIs. RESULTS: Hospitals frequently requested payment for non-CAUTIs as secondary diagnoses: 10.0% (95% CI, 9.5% to 10.5%) of discharges in 2007 and 10.3% (CI, 9.8% to 10.9%) in 2009. Hospital rates of CAUTI were very low: 0.09% (CI, 0.06% to 0.12%) in 2007 and 0.14% (CI, 0.11% to 0.17%) in 2009. In 2009, 2.6% (CI, 1.6% to 3.6%) of hospital-acquired UTIs were described as CAUTIs. Nonpayment for hospital-acquired CAUTIs reduced payment for 25 of 781 343 (0.003%) hospitalizations in 2009. LIMITATIONS: Data are from only 1 state and involved only 1 year before and after nonpayment for complications. Hospital prevention practices were not examined. CONCLUSION: Catheter-associated UTI rates determined by claims data seem to be inaccurate and are much lower than expected from epidemiologic surveillance data. The financial impact of current nonpayment policy for hospital-acquired CAUTI is low. Claims data are currently not valid data sets for comparing hospital-acquired CAUTI rates for the purpose of public reporting or imposing financial incentives or penalties. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan Foundation.