Response to geometrical visual illusions in non-human animals: a meta-analysis.

Visual illusions have been studied in many non-human species, spanning a wide range of biological and methodological variables. While early reviews have proved useful in providing an overview of the field, they have not been accompanied by quantitative analysis to systematically evaluate the contribution of biological and methodological moderators on the proportion of illusory choice. In the current meta-analytical study, we confirm that geometrical visual illusion perception is a general phenomenon among non-human animals. Additionally, we found that studies testing birds report stronger illusion perception compared to other classes, as do those on animals with lateral-positioned eyes compared to animals with forward-facing eyes. In terms of methodological choices, we found a positive correlation between the number of trials during training or testing and the effect sizes, while studies with larger samples report smaller effect sizes. Despite studies that trained animals with artificial stimuli showing larger effect sizes compared with those using spontaneous testing with naturalistic stimuli, like food, we found more recent studies prefer spontaneous choice over training. We discuss the challenges and bottlenecks in this area of study, which, if addressed, could lead to more successful advances in the future.

Limited Prosocial Emotions in a Clinical Population of Children and Adolescents: Proposal for Core and Ancillary Characteristics.

OBJECTIVE: Limited prosocial emotions (LPE) has been recently incorporated into international classifications as a specifier for conduct disorder in the DSM-5 and for all disruptive behavioural disorders in the ICD-11. The aims of the current work were to determine (a) the accuracy of each of the characteristics used to assess the LPE specifier and (b) whether the manner in which symptoms group together supports the idea of LPE having core characteristics. METHOD: Trained clinicians conducted interviews and determined LPE characteristics using responses from 74 parent/guardian and child/adolescent participants. RESULTS: The distribution of LPE characteristics among those participants with LPE (n = 13) was compared to those with only one LPE characteristic (n = 11). The proposal of callous lack of empathy (CLE) and shallow deficient affect (SDA) as core characteristics was supported by strong associations with the presence of the LPE specifier, larger specificity, and sensitivity indices than those for unconcerned about performance and lack of remorse or guilt, as well as by a robust aggregation in a latent class analysis. CONCLUSIONS: CLE and SDA could be considered as core characteristics of LPE in children and adolescents.

Nahua mushroom gatherers use area-restricted search strategies that conform to marginal value theorem predictions.

We develop a method of analysis for testing the marginal value theorem (MVT) in natural settings that does not require an independent definition or mapping of patches. We draw on recent theoretical work on area-restricted search (ARS) that links turning-angle and step-size changes to geographically localized encounter-rates. These models allow us to estimate "giving-up times" using encounter-annotated GPS tracking data. Applied to a case study of Nahua mushroom foragers, these models identify distinct forms of intrapatch and interpatch search behavior, with intrapatch search transitioning to interpatch search after a predictable interval of time since the last encounter with a harvested mushroom. Our empirical estimate of giving-up time coincides with the theoretically optimal giving-up time derived under the MVT in the same environment. The MVT is currently underused in studies of human foraging and settlement patterns, due in large part to the difficulty of identifying discrete resource patches and quantifying their characteristics. Our methods mitigate the need to make such discrete maps of patches and thus have the potential to broaden the scope for empirical evaluations of the MVT and related theory in humans. Beyond studies of naturalistic foraging in humans and other animals, our approach has implications for optimization of search behavior in a range of applied fields where search dynamics must be adapted to shifting patterns of environmental heterogeneity affecting prey density and patchiness.

Association of TRAF1/C5 Locus Polymorphisms with Epilepsy and Clinical Traits in Mexican Patients with Neurocysticercosis.

Neurocysticercosis is caused by the establishment of Taenia solium cysts in the central nervous system. Murine cysticercosis by Taenia crassiceps is a useful model of cysticercosis in which the complement component 5 (C5) has been linked to infection resistance/permissiveness. This work aimed to study the possible relevance for human neurocysticercosis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the C5-TRAF1 region (rs17611 C/T, rs992670 G/A, rs25681 G/A, rs10818488 A/G, and rs3761847 G/A) in a Mexican population and associated with clinical and radiological traits related to neurocysticercosis severity (cell count in the cerebrospinal fluid [CSF cellularity], parasite location and parasite load in the brain, parasite degenerating stage, and epilepsy). The AG genotype of the rs3761847 SNP showed a tendency to associate with multiple brain parasites, while the CT and GG genotypes of the rs17611 and rs3761847 SNPs, respectively, showed a tendency to associate with low CSF cellularity. The rs3761847 SNP was associated with epilepsy under a dominant model, whereas rs10818488 was associated with CSF cellularity and parasite load under dominant and recessive models, respectively. For haplotypes, C5- and the TRAF1-associated SNPs were, respectively, in strong linkage disequilibrium with each other; thus, these haplotypes were studied independently. For C5 SNPs, carrying the CAA haplotype increases the risk of showing high CSF cellularity 3-fold and the risk of having extraparenchymal parasites 4-fold, two conditions that are related to severe disease. For TRAF1 SNPs, the GA and AG haplotypes were associated with CSF cellularity, and the AG haplotype was associated with epilepsy. Overall, these findings support the clear participation of C5 and TRAF1 in the risk of developing severe neurocysticercosis in the Mexican population.

Validity and reliability of the kiddie schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia present and lifetime version DSM-5 (K-SADS-PL-5) Spanish version.

BACKGROUND: There are various language adaptations of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL). In order to comply with the changes in DSM classification, the Spanish edition of the interview was in need of update and evaluation. METHODS: K-SADS-PL was adapted to correspond to DSM-5 categories. All clinicians received training, and a 90% agreement was reached. Patients and their parents or guardians were interviewed and videotaped, and the videos were exchanged between raters. Factor analysis was performed and inter-rater reliability was calculated only in the case of diagnoses in which there were more than five patients. RESULTS: A total of 74 subjects were included. The Factor Analysis yielded six factors (Depressive, Stress Hyperarousal, Disruptive Behavioral, Irritable Explosive, Obsessive Repetitive and Encopresis), representing 72% of the variance. Kappa values for inter-rater agreement were larger than 0.7 for over half of the disorders. CONCLUSIONS: The factor structure of diagnoses, made with the instrument was found to correspond to the DSM-5 disorder organization. The instrument showed good construct validity and inter-rater reliability, which makes it a useful tool for clinical research studies in children and adolescents.

Effectiveness of a treatment guideline for schizophrenia in adolescents: Lessons from a middle-income country.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment guidelines for schizophrenia represent a standard way to manage patients, especially in countries with limited staff resources. However, they have not been compared on their efficacy with treatment as usual, despite adult studies suggesting they can be more effective. METHODS: Inpatient and outpatient adolescents with schizophrenia were randomly allocated to be either treated according to a guideline-based treatment ( n = 43) or treatment as usual ( n = 44). The effects on symptoms, psychosocial functioning and cognition were compared in a 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: There were no differences between groups in the pharmacological treatment, reduction in symptom severity or cognition. The guideline-based treatment group showed a better functioning at months 3 and 6. CONCLUSION: The guideline-based treatment had a greater effect than the treatment as usual in the psychosocial functioning of adolescent patients ( www.clinicaltrials.gov ; II3/02/0811).

Neurocysticercosis: the effectiveness of the cysticidal treatment could be influenced by the host immunity.

Neurocysticercosis, a clinically and radiologically pleomorphic parasitic disease, is still endemic to most non-developed countries of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Anti-helminthic drugs (AHD) are generally effective and rapidly destroy parenchymal cysticerci. In contrast, several cycles of AHD are frequently necessary to damage extraparenchymally located parasites. The present study was designed to evaluate whether differences in the immunological profile of the patients is involved in the diversity of the response to AHD. To this end, a global gene expression microarray and a cytokine analysis were made. Responder patients were those showing a radiological reduction greater than 50 % in the parasite burden following AHD treatment. Microarray pre- and post-treatment comparisons showed that a total of eighteen immune-related genes were up-regulated in the five responder patients with respect the expression profile seen in the four non-responder subjects. The function of up-regulated genes exerted pro-inflammatory (RORγC, Sema4A, SLAMF3, SLAMF6), anti-inflammatory (TGFß, TNFRSF25, TNFRS18, SLAMF1, ILF2), or immunomodulatory effects (CXCL2, RUNX3, SLAMF9, TGFBR3). To further explore the causes of the heterogeneity in the response to treatment, a wide ELISA cytokine analysis was performed in serum, PBMC supernatants, and CSF samples from 39 responder and 26 non-responder patients. Responder patients showed higher CSF IL-17A levels (P = 0.04) and higher supernatant IL-6 levels (P = 0.03) 60 days after treatment. These results suggest a possible influence of pro-inflammatory cytokines on the response to AHD as observed by radiological methods, and thus the possible participation of the host immunity in the effectiveness of AHD treatment.

Pediatric and psychiatric models of autism care in Mexico: Differences in diagnostic tools and prescribed interventions.

Low- and middle-income countries face heterogeneity in the way clinicians' approach Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis and treatment. The current study analyzes the diagnostic tools, laboratory tests, pharmacological and psychosocial interventions received by patients during the steps to diagnosis and treatment of two specialized care centers. Researchers interviewed families with a child with ASD receiving services at either a child psychiatric or a pediatric hospital. Of the total sample, 47% reported clinicians not using a diagnostic tool, 20% reported not receiving any psychosocial intervention, and 88% reported receiving a pharmacological prescription. Patients at the pediatric hospital were more likely to receive interventions with some components of Applied Behavioral Analysis, Early Start Denver Model, Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children, and Sensory integration therapy; while patients at the psychiatric hospital were more likely to undergo learning, daily living skills, and socialization therapies. Patients at the psychiatric hospital received significantly more requests to obtain auditory and vision tests whilst genetic testing and imaging were more common in the pediatric hospital. The range and variability in terms of diagnostic tools, laboratory tests, and treatment options observed for both sites reflect a lack of consensus. Recommendations to improve ASD diagnostic and treatment in Mexico are given.

Cysticerci drive dendritic cells to promote in vitro and in vivo Tregs differentiation.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a crucial role in immune homeostasis. Treg induction is a strategy that parasites have evolved to modulate the host's inflammatory environment, facilitating their establishment and permanence. In human Taenia solium neurocysticercosis (NC), the concurrence of increased peripheral and central Treg levels and their capacity to inhibit T cell activation and proliferation support their role in controlling neuroinflammation. This study is aimed at identifing possible mechanisms of Treg induction in human NC. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DC) from healthy human donors, cocultivated with autologous CD4(+) naïve cells either in the presence or absence of cysticerci, promoted CD25(high)Foxp3+ Treg differentiation. An increased Treg induction was observed when cysticerci were present. Moreover, an augmentation of suppressive-related molecules (SLAMF1, B7-H1, and CD205) was found in parasite-induced DC differentiation. Increased Tregs and a higher in vivo DC expression of the regulatory molecules SLAMF1 and CD205 in NC patients were also found. SLAMF1 gene was downregulated in NC patients with extraparenchymal cysticerci, exhibiting higher inflammation levels than patients with parenchymal parasites. Our findings suggest that cysticerci may modulate DC to favor a suppressive environment, which may help parasite establishment, minimizing the excessive inflammation, which may lead to tissue damage.

Evidence of long-term allocentric spatial memory in the Terrestrial Hermit Crab Coenobita compressus.

Spatial learning is a complex cognitive skill and ecologically important trait scarcely studied in crustaceans. We investigated the ability of the Pacific (Ecuadorian) hermit crab Coenobita compressus, to learn an allocentric spatial task using a palatable novel food as reward. Crabs were trained to locate the reward in a single session of eleven consecutive trials and tested subsequently, for short- (5 min) and long-term memory 1, 3 and 7 days later. Our results indicate that crabs were able to learn the location of the reward as they showed a reduction in the time required to find the food whenever it was present, suggesting a visuo-spatial and olfactory cue-guided task resolution. Moreover, crabs also remember the location of the reward up to 7 days after training using spatial cues only (without the food), as evidenced by the longer investigation time they spent in the learned food location than in any other part of the experimental arena, suggesting a visuo-spatial memory formation. This study represents the first description of allocentric spatial long-term memory in a terrestrial hermit crab.

The Tower Building Task: A Behavioral Tool to Evaluate Recreational Risk-Taking.

Risk-taking is a fundamental aspect of life spanning diverse contexts. Despite many tests being readily available, the behavioral assessment of risk propensity in recreational contexts, where decisions are not necessarily motivated by monetary gains or losses, is not well represented. As the tower building task (TBT) shares features of recreational activities, we evaluated whether it could assess risk-taking in this type of scenario. In the TBT, participants use standard-size wooden blocks to build the tallest tower they can within a 10 min period. In the current study we (i) examined methodological modifications to the task to either promote or reduce risky behavior and (ii) tested possible associations between the TBT scores and those of two commonly used risk-taking evaluations: The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) and the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS). We found that limiting the number of permitted collapses decreased the willingness to take risks, whereas challenging participants to exceed a "record" height increased risk-taking. TBT scores of one of the conditions correlated with scores of the BART and the SSS, particularly with the subscale addressing recreational activities. These findings suggest that the TBT offers a potentially useful means of evaluating risk-taking behaviors akin to those of the recreational domain.

Neuropsychological screening with TOWI: Performance in 6- to 12-year-old children.

Videogames represent an exciting development in neuropsychological assessment of cognitive function. Here, we used TOWI, a series of games based on standardized tests, to evaluate the cognitive performance of a large sample of school-age children. We compared the metrics produced by TOWI with the performance metrics reported for the standardized tests that inspired each of these tasks. We found ascending values together with age for scores reflecting correct answers and descending values together with age for scores reflecting completion times, mistakes or missed entries. Sensitivity to developmental changes, similarities with standardized tests of task metrics contribute to the validity of TOWI as a screening tool.

Age and sex differences in the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and coping mechanisms in Latin American youth.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has had negative effects on mental health. Understanding sex and age differences in the perception of stressors, the use of coping strategies, and the prevalence of depression and anxiety can lead to detecting at-risk groups. METHODS: A cross-sectional online study surveyed perceived stressors, coping strategies, and the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 rating scales for symptoms of depression and anxiety. The study was open from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021 and was aimed at children, adolescents and young adults of Latin America. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 3965 participants (63.8% females). The sample was divided into children (N = 621, 15.7%), adolescents (N = 1123, 28.3%) and young adults (N = 2021, 56%). Moderate to severe symptoms of depression and anxiety were found in 43.53% and 27%, respectively, being more frequent in females. Children of both sexes showed the lowest scores in rating scales. Adult females reported a higher level of stress in regards to pandemic news, having someone close diagnosed with COVID-19,the possibility of getting sick, academic delays, economic impact, and depression, while female adolescents reported a higher level of stress regarding the lockdown, losing contact with peers and anxiety. In juxtaposition, females also reported a higher frequency of positive coping strategies. A multivariate analysis confirmed the association of several variables with the presence of depression and anxiety. CONCLUSION: A high prevalence of depression and anxiety was found among young people. Specific intervention programs must be created taking into account age and sex differences.

Temporal lobe epilepsy: Evaluation of central and systemic immune-inflammatory features associated with drug resistance.

Neuroinflammation is probably one of the factors involved in drug resistance in people with epilepsy. Finding peripheral markers reflecting the intensity of neuroinflammation could be of great help to decide for which patients anti-inflammatory treatment might be an option. In this context, peripheral cytokines levels and lymphocyte phenotypes were assessed by ELISA and flow cytometry in 3 groups of subjects: drug resistant patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (DR-TLE), non DR-TLE patients and healthy controls. The same parameters were assessed in brain tissue in the DR-TLE group. Differences in the peripheral immune-inflammatory status between the 3 groups of subjects, and correlations between the central and peripheral immune-inflammatory status in DR-TLE patients were evaluated. Forty-one patients with DR-TLE, ten with non-DR-TLE and twenty controls were included. In the periphery, decrease in regulatory cells were observed in DR-TLE patients compared to controls. In addition, significant increase of IL-6 and IL-5 was observed in patients with epilepsy (particularly DR-TLE patients). Two groups of DR-TLE patients with significant differences in several central inflammatory parameters were identified in a cluster analysis. The inflammatory cluster was associated with a peripheral increase of CD4+CD38+ cells and different significant correlations between central and systemic inflammatory parameters were observed. Although their interpretation is not immediate, they demonstrate a clear dialogue between central and peripheral inflammatory reactions. In conclusion, our results add new elements to better understand the interactions between the central and peripheral compartments in patients with DR-TLE, and to help better define treatment options in this group of patients.

Pathways to a Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyze the pathways to obtaining a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) within the Mexican health system. METHODS: Parents of children with ASD (N=186) were approached at specialized health centers and interviewed about the sequence of professionals they contacted that led to a diagnosis. The authors established the pathway to diagnosis, time of first parental concerns, time of first consultation, age of the child at diagnosis, and other measures. A Sankey plot was used to illustrate the complexity of the pathway to diagnosis. Diagnostic delays among children with autism were compared with delays among subsamples of children with Asperger's syndrome. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the effect of socioeconomic and clinical variables on diagnostic delays. RESULTS: The median diagnostic delay was 27 months (interquartile range [IQR] 8-36), and three professional contacts (IQR 3-6) were needed to achieve a diagnosis. Patients switched between primary and tertiary care even in later stages of the pathway. Patients with Asperger's syndrome had longer delays than patients with autism, and girls and older patients took more time to receive a diagnosis. Parental concerns regarding language, developmental issues, and perceived developmental regression resulted in shorter diagnostic delays. CONCLUSIONS: Pathways to diagnosis of ASD are long and involve multiple contacts, with patients alternating between primary and specialized care. This pattern reflects failures in the diagnostic protocols and referral systems of clinical centers in Mexico, and such issues may be experienced in countries with similarly overwhelmed health care systems.

The ball search field task in the evaluation of methylphenidate treatment of children with attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder.

Assessing behavioral change in psychiatric contexts requires retesting patients where, however, ecologically relevant tasks are rarely used. We employed the Ball Search Field Task (BSFT) to evaluate the performance of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) outpatients before and after administration of methylphenidate (MPH) and compared their performance with that of non-medicated ADHD outpatients and age-matched controls. The outpatient groups showed poorer performance at initial testing, improved performance at re-test although not to the level of the controls, and no clear effect of MPH treatment. The BSFT is thus sufficiently motivating and discriminating for the behavioral evaluation of treatments in psychiatric contexts.

Cognitive impairment and its improvement after six months in adolescents with schizophrenia.

Studies evaluating the cognitive impairment in schizophrenic adolescents reported a variable course following antipsychotic treatment, with improvement being associated to patients' demographic or clinical characteristics. OBJECTIVES: To examine the cognitive impairments of a Mexican sample of adolescents with schizophrenia using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) before and after six months of antipsychotic treatment and to determine which demographic or clinical characteristics could be associated to cognitive improvement. METHODS: A sample of 87 Mexican patients was evaluated with the MCCB. Domain scores for three age groups (12-13, 14-15 and 16-17 y.o.) were obtained at baseline, and after 3 and 6 months of treatment. The groups were compared for demographic and clinical variables (sex, school attendance, years of education, being on their first psychotic episode, duration of illness and mean dose of antipsychotic), and a logistic regression analysis was performed to determine which variables predicted larger improvement. RESULTS: The baseline performance showed scores below the standardized mean, with improvement in all domains except for social cognition; female adolescents showed a larger improvement in attention/vigilance and visual learning domains. CONCLUSIONS: We observed cognitive impairments on schizophrenic adolescents, which improved after six months of treatment in almost all domains.

Human Foragers: Searchers by Nature and Experience.

Diverse studies of human foraging have revealed behavioral strategies that may have evolved as adaptations for foraging. Here, we used an outdoor experimental search task to explore the effect of three sources of information on participants' performance: (i) information obtained directly from performing a search, (ii) information obtained prior to testing in the form of a distilled snippet of knowledge intended to experimentally simulate information acquired culturally about the environment, and (iii) information obtained from experience of foraging for natural resources for economic gain. We found that (i) immediate searching experience improved performance from the beginning to the end of the short, 2-min task, (ii) information priming improved performance notably from the very beginning of the task, and (iii) natural resource foraging experience improved performance to a lesser extent. Our results highlight the role of culturally transmitted information as well as the presence of mechanisms to rapidly integrate and implement new information into searching choices, which ultimately influence performance in a foraging task.

A novel experimental paradigm to evaluate children and adolescents diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Comparison with two standard neuropsychological methods.

INTRODUCTION: In this study we evaluated a recently developed test, the Ball Search Field Task (BSFT) as a neuropsychological tool for measuring cognitive and behavioral performance of individuals with disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which are frequently accompanied by cognitive deficits and a lack of behavioral inhibition. The task provides a complementary method of assessment that attempts ecological validity by drawing on challenges faced in real-world situations. In this task, energetic costs and gross sensorimotor feedback are involved, as participants are required to search for targets in a large open area. METHOD: We compared performance on the BSFT in a clinical sample of children and adolescents with a diagnosis of ADHD with their scores on two widely used neuropsychological tools, the Tower of London (ToLo) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). RESULTS: We found no correlations between scores on the BRIEF and those on either the BSFT or ToLo. However, we found moderate correlations between rule violations on ToLo and several BSFT variables, suggesting the capacity of these tests to detect common aspects of executive dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: These findings, although modest, encourage further study of tasks like the BSFT, which may help assess cognitive dysfunction found in neurodevelopmental disorders such as ADHD in ecologically valid situations.

Recovery from an acute systemic and central LPS-inflammation challenge is affected by mouse sex and genetic background.

Genetic and sexual factors influence the prevalence and the pathogenesis of many inflammatory disorders. In this study their relevance on the peripheral and central inflammatory status induced by a peripheral injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was evaluated. BALB/c and CD-1 male and female mice were intraperitoneally injected with LPS. Spleens and brains were collected 2 and 72 hours later to study the levels of IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1ß. Percentage of microglia and astrocytes was determined in the cortex and hippocampus. Locomotor activity was registered before and during the 72 hours after LPS-treatment. Two hours after LPS-injection, a peripheral increase of the three cytokines was found. In brains, LPS increased TNF-α only in males with higher levels in CD-1 than BALB/c. IL-1ß increased only in CD-1 males. IL-6 increased in both strains with lower levels in BALB/c females. Peripheral and central levels of cytokines decline 72 hrs after LPS-treatment whilst a significantly increase of Iba-1 expression was detected. A dramatic drop of the locomotor activity was observed immediately after LPS injection. Our results show that acute systemic administration of LPS leads to peripheral and central increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines and microglia activation, in a strain and sex dependent manner.