Inducing trained immunity in pro-metastatic macrophages to control tumor metastasis.

Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths and myeloid cells are critical in the metastatic microenvironment. Here, we explore the implications of reprogramming pre-metastatic niche myeloid cells by inducing trained immunity with whole beta-glucan particle (WGP). WGP-trained macrophages had increased responsiveness not only to lipopolysaccharide but also to tumor-derived factors. WGP in vivo treatment led to a trained immunity phenotype in lung interstitial macrophages, resulting in inhibition of tumor metastasis and survival prolongation in multiple mouse models of metastasis. WGP-induced trained immunity is mediated by the metabolite sphingosine-1-phosphate. Adoptive transfer of WGP-trained bone marrow-derived macrophages reduced tumor lung metastasis. Blockade of sphingosine-1-phosphate synthesis and mitochondrial fission abrogated WGP-induced trained immunity and its inhibition of lung metastases. WGP also induced trained immunity in human monocytes, resulting in antitumor activity. Our study identifies the metabolic sphingolipid-mitochondrial fission pathway for WGP-induced trained immunity and control over metastasis.

What is the functional reach of wastewater surveillance for respiratory viruses, pathogenic viruses of concern, and bacterial antibiotic resistance genes of interest?

BACKGROUND: Despite a clear appreciation of the impact of human pathogens on community health, efforts to understand pathogen dynamics within populations often follow a narrow-targeted approach and rely on the deployment of specific molecular probes for quantitative detection or rely on clinical detection and reporting. MAIN TEXT: Genomic analysis of wastewater samples for the broad detection of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and antibiotic resistance genes of interest/concern is inherently difficult, and while deep sequencing of wastewater provides a wealth of information, a robust and cooperative foundation is needed to support healthier communities. In addition to furthering the capacity of high-throughput sequencing wastewater-based epidemiology to detect human pathogens in an unbiased and agnostic manner, it is critical that collaborative networks among public health agencies, researchers, and community stakeholders be fostered to prepare communities for future public health emergencies or for the next pandemic. A more inclusive public health infrastructure must be built for better data reporting where there is a global human health risk burden. CONCLUSIONS: As wastewater platforms continue to be developed and refined, high-throughput sequencing of human pathogens in wastewater samples will emerge as a gold standard for understanding community health.

Resolvin D1 attenuated liver injury caused by chronic ethanol and acute LPS challenge in mice.

Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is a major health problem with limited effective treatment options. Alcohol-associated hepatitis (AH) is a subset of severe ALD with a high rate of mortality due to infection, severe inflammation, and ultimately multi-organ failure. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutic approaches to alleviate the human suffering associated with this condition. Resolvin D1 (RvD1) promotes the resolution of inflammation and regulates immune responses. The current study aimed to test the therapeutic efficacy and mechanisms of RvD1-mediated effects on liver injury and inflammation in an experimental animal model that mimics severe AH in humans. Our data demonstrated that mice treated with RvD1 had attenuated liver injury and inflammation caused by EtOH and LPS exposure by limiting hepatic neutrophil accumulation and decreasing hepatic levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, RvD1 treatment attenuated hepatic pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death, via downregulation of pyroptosis-related genes such as GTPase family member b10 and guanylate binding protein 2, and reducing cleavage of caspase 11 and gasdermin-D. In vitro experiments with primary mouse hepatocytes and bone marrow-derived macrophages confirmed the effectiveness of RvD1 in the attenuation of pyroptosis. In summary, our data demonstrated that RvD1 treatment provided beneficial effects against liver injury and inflammation in an experimental animal model recapitulating features of severe AH in humans. Our results suggest that RvD1 may be a novel adjunct strategy to traditional therapeutic options for AH patients.

Shoc2 controls ERK1/2-driven neural crest development by balancing components of the extracellular matrix.

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) pathway is essential in embryonic development. The scaffold protein Shoc2 is a critical modulator of ERK1/2 signals, and mutations in the shoc2 gene lead to the human developmental disease known as Noonan-like syndrome with loose anagen hair (NSLH). The loss of Shoc2 and the shoc2 NSLH-causing mutations affect the tissues of neural crest (NC) origin. In this study, we utilized the zebrafish model to dissect the role of Shoc2-ERK1/2 signals in the development of NC. These studies established that the loss of Shoc2 significantly altered the expression of transcription factors regulating the specification and differentiation of NC cells. Using comparative transcriptome analysis of NC-derived cells from shoc2 CRISPR/Cas9 mutant larvae, we found that Shoc2-mediated signals regulate gene programs at several levels, including expression of genes coding for the proteins of extracellular matrix (ECM) and ECM regulators. Together, our results demonstrate that Shoc2 is an essential regulator of NC development. This study also indicates that disbalance in the turnover of the ECM may lead to the abnormalities found in NSLH patients.

Polychlorinated biphenyls alter hepatic m6A mRNA methylation in a mouse model of environmental liver disease.

Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has been associated with liver injury in human cohorts and with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in mice fed a high fat diet (HFD). N (6)-methyladenosine (m6A) modification of mRNA regulates transcript fate, but the contribution of m6A modification on the regulation of transcripts in PCB-induced steatosis and fibrosis is unknown. This study tested the hypothesis that PCB and HFD exposure alters the levels of m6A modification in transcripts that play a role in NASH in vivo. Male C57Bl6/J mice were fed a HFD (12 wks) and administered a single oral dose of Aroclor1260, PCB126, or Aroclor1260 + PCB126. Genome-wide identification of m6A peaks was accomplished by m6A mRNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (m6A-RIP) and the mRNA transcriptome identified by RNA-seq. Exposure of HFD-fed mice to Aroclor1260 decreased the number of m6A peaks and m6A-containing genes relative to PCB vehicle control whereas PCB126 or the combination of Aroclor1260 + PCB126 increased m6A modification frequency. ∼41% of genes had one m6A peak and ∼49% had 2-4 m6A peaks. 117 m6A peaks were common in the four experimental groups. The Aroclor1260 + PCB126 exposure group showed the highest number (52) of m6A-peaks. qRT-PCR confirmed enrichment of m6A-containing fragments of the Apob transcript with PCB exposure. A1cf transcript abundance, m6A peak count, and protein abundance was increased with Aroclor1260 + PCB126 co-exposure. Irrespective of the PCB type, all PCB groups exhibited enriched pathways related to lipid/lipoprotein metabolism and inflammation through the m6A modification. Integrated analysis of m6A-RIP-seq and mRNA-seq identified 242 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with increased or reduced number of m6A peaks. These data show that PCB exposure in HFD-fed mice alters the m6A landscape offering an additional layer of regulation of gene expression affecting a subset of gene responses in NASH.

rMAPS2: an update of the RNA map analysis and plotting server for alternative splicing regulation.

The rMAPS2 (RNA Map Analysis and Plotting Server 2) web server, freely available at http://rmaps.cecsresearch.org/, has provided the high-throughput sequencing data research community with curated tools for the identification of RNA binding protein sites. rMAPS2 analyzes differential alternative splicing or CLIP peak data obtained from high-throughput sequencing data analysis tools like MISO, rMATS, Piranha, PIPE-CLIP and PARalyzer, and then, graphically displays enriched RNA-binding protein target sites. The initial release of rMAPS focused only on the most common alternative splicing event, skipped exon or exon skipping. However, there was a high demand for the analysis of other major types of alternative splicing events, especially for retained intron events since this is the most common type of alternative splicing in plants, such as Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we expanded the implementation of rMAPS2 to facilitate analyses for all five major types of alternative splicing events: skipped exon, mutually exclusive exons, alternative 5' splice site, alternative 3' splice site and retained intron. In addition, by employing multi-threading, rMAPS2 has vastly improved the user experience with significant reductions in running time, ∼3.5 min for the analysis of all five major alternative splicing types at once.

Polystyrene bead ingestion promotes adiposity and cardiometabolic disease in mice.

Vast amounts of plastic materials are produced in the modern world and despite recycling efforts, large amounts are disposed in water systems and landfills. Under these storage conditions, physical weathering and photochemical processes break down these materials into smaller particles of the micro- and nano-scale. In addition, ecosystems can be contaminated with plastic particles which are manufactured in these size ranges for commercial purposes. Independent of source, microplastics are abundant in the environment and have found their way into water supplies and the food cycle where human exposure is inevitable. Nevertheless, the health consequences of microplastic ingestion, inhalation, or absorption are largely unknown. In this study we sought to determine if ingestion of microplastics promoted pre-clinical cardiovascular disease (CVD). To do this, we supplied mice with normal drinking water or that supplemented with polystyrene beads of two different sizes (0.5 µm and 5 µm) and two different doses (0.1 µg/ml and 1 µg/ml) each for 12 weeks and measured several indices of metabolism and glucose homeostasis. As early as 3 weeks of consumption, we observed an accelerated weight gain with a corresponding increase in body fat for some exposure groups versus the control mice. Some exposure groups demonstrated increased levels of fasting plasma glucose. Those mice consuming the smaller sized beads (0.5 µm) at the higher dose (1 µg/ml), had increased levels of fasting plasma insulin and higher homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) scores as well. This was accompanied by changes in the gut microbiome consistent with an obese phenotype. Using samples of perivascular adipose tissue collected from the same group, we observed changes in gene expression consistent with increased adipogenesis. These results suggest that ingestion of polystyrene beads promotes a cardiometabolic disease phenotype and thus may be an unrecognized risk factor for CVD.

Comparative gene expression analysis in melanocytes driven by tumor cell-derived exosomes.

Abundant with organelle-like membranous structures, the tumor microenvironment is composed of cancer cells that secrete exosomes. Studies have shown that these secreted exosomes transport RNA and active molecules to other cells to reshape the tumor microenvironment and promote tumor growth. In fact, we found that exosomes derived from melanoma cells drive pre-malignant transition in primary melanocytes. However, there is little available in the scientific literature on how exosomes modulate melanocytes in the microenvironment to optimize conditions for tumor progression and metastasis. We therefore focused this current study on identifying these conditions genetically. Through RNA sequencing, we analyzed gene expression levels of melanocytes driven by exosomes derived from melanoma and lung cancer cells compared with those without exosome controls. Significant differences were found in gene expression patterns of melanocytes driven by exosomes derived from melanoma and lung cancer cells. In the melanocytes responding to exosomes derived from melanoma cells, genes of lipopolysaccharide and regulation of leukocyte chemotaxis were predominant. In the melanocytes responding to exosomes derived from lung cancer cells, genes of DNA replication and mitotic nuclear division played an important role. These results provide further mechanistic understanding of tumor progression promoted by tumor-derived exosomes. This will also help identify potential therapeutic targets for melanoma progression.

Ileum Gene Expression in Response to Acute Systemic Inflammation in Mice Chronically Fed Ethanol: Beneficial Effects of Elevated Tissue n-3 PUFAs.

Chronic alcohol consumption leads to disturbances in intestinal function which can be exacerbated by inflammation and modulated by different factors, e.g., polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The mechanisms underlying these alterations are not well understood. In this study, RNA-seq analysis was performed on ileum tissue from WT and fat-1 transgenic mice (which have elevated endogenous n-3 PUFAs). Mice were chronically fed ethanol (EtOH) and challenged with a single lipopolysaccharide (LPS) dose to induce acute systemic inflammation. Both WT and fat-1 mice exhibited significant ileum transcriptome changes following EtOH + LPS treatment. Compared to WT, fat-1 mice had upregulated expression of genes associated with cell cycle and xenobiotic metabolism, while the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pro-fibrotic genes was decreased. In response to EtOH + LPS, fat-1 mice had an increased expression of genes related to antibacterial B cells (APRIL and IgA), as well as an elevation in markers of pro-restorative macrophages and γδ T cells that was not observed in WT mice. Our study significantly expands the knowledge of regulatory mechanisms underlying intestinal alterations due to EtOH consumption and inflammation and identifies the beneficial transcriptional effects of n-3 PUFAs, which may serve as a viable nutritional intervention for intestinal damage resulting from excessive alcohol consumption.

Sex-Based Differences in Cardiac Gene Expression and Function in BDNF Val66Met Mice.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a pleiotropic neuronal growth and survival factor that is indispensable in the brain, as well as in multiple other tissues and organs, including the cardiovascular system. In approximately 30% of the general population, BDNF harbors a nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism that may be associated with cardiometabolic disorders, coronary artery disease, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy cardiomyopathy. We recently showed that transgenic mice with the human BDNF rs6265 polymorphism (Val66Met) exhibit altered cardiac function, and that cardiomyocytes isolated from these mice are also less contractile. To identify the underlying mechanisms involved, we compared cardiac function by echocardiography and performed deep sequencing of RNA extracted from whole hearts of all three genotypes (Val/Val, Val/Met, and Met/Met) of both male and female Val66Met mice. We found female-specific cardiac alterations in both heterozygous and homozygous carriers, including increased systolic (26.8%, p = 0.047) and diastolic diameters (14.9%, p = 0.022), increased systolic (57.9%, p = 0.039) and diastolic volumes (32.7%, p = 0.026), and increased stroke volume (25.9%, p = 0.033), with preserved ejection fraction and fractional shortening. Both males and females exhibited lower heart rates, but this change was more pronounced in female mice than in males. Consistent with phenotypic observations, the gene encoding SERCA2 (Atp2a2) was reduced in homozygous Met/Met mice but more profoundly in females compared to males. Enriched functions in females with the Met allele included cardiac hypertrophy in response to stress, with down-regulation of the gene encoding titin (Tcap) and upregulation of BNP (Nppb), in line with altered cardiac functional parameters. Homozygous male mice on the other hand exhibited an inflammatory profile characterized by interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-mediated Th1 immune responses. These results provide evidence for sex-based differences in how the BDNF polymorphism modifies cardiac physiology, including female-specific alterations of cardiac-specific transcripts and male-specific activation of inflammatory targets.

Choice of library size normalization and statistical methods for differential gene expression analysis in balanced two-group comparisons for RNA-seq studies.

BACKGROUND: High-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) has evolved as an important analytical tool in molecular biology. Although the utility and importance of this technique have grown, uncertainties regarding the proper analysis of RNA-seq data remain. Of primary concern, there is no consensus regarding which normalization and statistical methods are the most appropriate for analyzing this data. The lack of standardized analytical methods leads to uncertainties in data interpretation and study reproducibility, especially with studies reporting high false discovery rates. In this study, we compared a recently developed normalization method, UQ-pgQ2, with three of the most frequently used alternatives including RLE (relative log estimate), TMM (Trimmed-mean M values) and UQ (upper quartile normalization) in the analysis of RNA-seq data. We evaluated the performance of these methods for gene-level differential expression analysis by considering the factors, including: 1) normalization combined with the choice of a Wald test from DESeq2 and an exact test/QL (Quasi-likelihood) F-Test from edgeR; 2) sample sizes in two balanced two-group comparisons; and 3) sequencing read depths. RESULTS: Using the MAQC RNA-seq datasets with small sample replicates, we found that UQ-pgQ2 normalization combined with an exact test can achieve better performance in term of power and specificity in differential gene expression analysis. However, using an intra-group analysis of false positives from real and simulated data, we found that a Wald test performs better than an exact test when the number of sample replicates is large and that a QL F-test performs the best given sample sizes of 5, 10 and 15 for any normalization. The RLE, TMM and UQ methods performed similarly given a desired sample size. CONCLUSION: We found the UQ-pgQ2 method combined with an exact test/QL F-test is the best choice in order to control false positives when the sample size is small. When the sample size is large, UQ-pgQ2 with a QL F-test is a better choice for the type I error control in an intra-group analysis. We observed read depths have a minimal impact for differential gene expression analysis based on the simulated data.

Decreased ω-6:ω-3 PUFA ratio attenuates ethanol-induced alterations in intestinal homeostasis, microbiota, and liver injury.

Ethanol (EtOH)-induced alterations in intestinal homeostasis lead to multi-system pathologies, including liver injury. ω-6 PUFAs exert pro-inflammatory activity, while ω-3 PUFAs promote anti-inflammatory activity that is mediated, in part, through specialized pro-resolving mediators [e.g., resolvin D1 (RvD1)]. We tested the hypothesis that a decrease in the ω-6:ω-3 PUFA ratio would attenuate EtOH-mediated alterations in the gut-liver axis. ω-3 FA desaturase-1 (fat-1) mice, which endogenously increase ω-3 PUFA levels, were protected against EtOH-mediated downregulation of intestinal tight junction proteins in organoid cultures and in vivo. EtOH- and lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of INF-γ, Il-6, and Cxcl1 was attenuated in fat-1 and WT RvD1-treated mice. RNA-seq of ileum tissue revealed upregulation of several genes involved in cell proliferation, stem cell renewal, and antimicrobial defense (including Alpi and Leap2) in fat-1 versus WT mice fed EtOH. fat-1 mice were also resistant to EtOH-mediated downregulation of genes important for xenobiotic/bile acid detoxification. Further, gut microbiome and plasma metabolomics revealed several changes in fat-1 versus WT mice that may contribute to a reduced inflammatory response. Finally, these data correlated with a significant reduction in liver injury. Our study suggests that ω-3 PUFA enrichment or treatment with resolvins can attenuate the disruption in intestinal homeostasis caused by EtOH consumption and systemic inflammation with a concomitant reduction in liver injury.

Transcriptomic analysis of immune response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide in zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata).

BACKGROUND: Despite the convergence of rapid technological advances in genomics and the maturing field of ecoimmunology, our understanding of the genes that regulate immunity in wild populations is still nascent. Previous work to assess immune function has relied upon relatively crude measures of immunocompetence. However, with next-generation RNA-sequencing, it is now possible to create a profile of gene expression in response to an immune challenge. In this study, captive zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata; adult males) were challenged with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or vehicle to stimulate the innate immune system. 2 hours after injection, birds were euthanized and hypothalami, spleen, and red blood cells (RBCs) were collected. Taking advantage of the fully sequenced genome of zebra finch, total RNA was isolated, sequenced, and partially annotated in these tissue/cells. RESULTS: In hypothalamus, there were 707 significantly upregulated transcripts, as well as 564 and 144 in the spleen and RBCs, respectively, relative to controls. Also, 155 transcripts in the hypothalamus, 606 in the spleen, and 61 in the RBCs were significantly downregulated. More specifically, a number of immunity-related transcripts (e.g., IL-1ß, RSAD2, SOCS3) were upregulated among tissues/cells. Additionally, transcripts involved in metabolic processes (APOD, LRAT, RBP4) were downregulated. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a potential trade-off in expression of genes that regulate immunity and metabolism in birds challenged with LPS. This finding is consistent with a hypothermic response to LPS treatment in small birds. Unlike mammals, birds have nucleated RBCs, and these results support a novel transcriptomic response of avian RBCs to immune challenge.

Dietary copper-fructose interactions alter gut microbial activity in male rats.

Dietary copper-fructose interactions contribute to the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Gut microbiota play critical roles in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different dietary doses of copper and their interactions with high fructose on gut microbiome. Male weanling Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets with adequate copper (6 ppm CuA), marginal copper (1.5 ppm CuM) (low copper), or supplemented copper (20 ppm CuS) (high copper) for 4 wk. Deionized water or deionized water containing 30% fructose (wt/vol) was given ad libitum. Copper status, liver enzymes, gut barrier function, and gut microbiome were evaluated. Both low- and high-copper diets led to liver injury in high-fructose-fed rats, and this was associated with gut barrier dysfunction, as shown by the markedly decreased tight junction proteins and increased gut permeability. 16S rDNA sequencing analysis revealed distinct alterations of the gut microbiome associated with dietary low- and high-copper/high-fructose feeding. The common features of the alterations of the gut microbiome were the increased abundance of Firmicutes and the depletion of Akkermansia. However, they differed mainly within the phylum Firmicutes. Our data demonstrated that a complex interplay among host, microbes, and dietary copper-fructose interaction regulates gut microbial metabolic activity, which may contribute to the development of liver injury and hepatic steatosis. The distinct alterations of gut microbial activity, which were associated with the different dietary doses of copper and fructose, imply that separate mechanism(s) may be involved. NEW & NOTEWORTHY First, dietary low- and high-copper/high-fructose-induced liver injury are associated with distinct alterations of gut microbiome. Second, dietary copper level plays a critical role in maintaining the gut barrier integrity, likely by acting on the intestinal tight junction proteins and the protective commensal bacteria Akkermansia. Third, the alterations of gut microbiome induced by dietary low and high copper with or without fructose differ mainly within the phylum Firmicutes.

rMAPS: RNA map analysis and plotting server for alternative exon regulation.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play a critical role in the regulation of alternative splicing (AS), a prevalent mechanism for generating transcriptomic and proteomic diversity in eukaryotic cells. Studies have shown that AS can be regulated by RBPs in a binding-site-position dependent manner. Depending on where RBPs bind, splicing of an alternative exon can be enhanced or suppressed. Therefore, spatial analyses of RBP motifs and binding sites around alternative exons will help elucidate splicing regulation by RBPs. The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies has allowed transcriptome-wide analyses of AS and RBP-RNA interactions. Given a set of differentially regulated alternative exons obtained from RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) experiments, the rMAPS web server (http://rmaps.cecsresearch.org) performs motif analyses of RBPs in the vicinity of alternatively spliced exons and creates RNA maps that depict the spatial patterns of RBP motifs. Similarly, rMAPS can also perform spatial analyses of RBP-RNA binding sites identified by cross-linking immunoprecipitation sequencing (CLIP-seq) experiments. We anticipate rMAPS will be a useful tool for elucidating RBP regulation of alternative exon splicing using high-throughput sequencing data.

The Adaptor Protein CD2AP Is a Coordinator of Neurotrophin Signaling-Mediated Axon Arbor Plasticity.

Growth of intact axons of noninjured neurons, often termed collateral sprouting, contributes to both adaptive and pathological plasticity in the adult nervous system, but the intracellular factors controlling this growth are largely unknown. An automated functional assay of genes regulated in sensory neurons from the rat in vivo spared dermatome model of collateral sprouting identified the adaptor protein CD2-associated protein (CD2AP; human CMS) as a positive regulator of axon growth. In non-neuronal cells, CD2AP, like other adaptor proteins, functions to selectively control the spatial/temporal assembly of multiprotein complexes that transmit intracellular signals. Although CD2AP polymorphisms are associated with increased risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease, its role in axon growth is unknown. Assessments of neurite arbor structure in vitro revealed CD2AP overexpression, and siRNA-mediated knockdown, modulated (1) neurite length, (2) neurite complexity, and (3) growth cone filopodia number, in accordance with CD2AP expression levels. We show, for the first time, that CD2AP forms a novel multiprotein complex with the NGF receptor TrkA and the PI3K regulatory subunit p85, with the degree of TrkA:p85 association positively regulated by CD2AP levels. CD2AP also regulates NGF signaling through AKT, but not ERK, and regulates long-range signaling though TrkA(+)/RAB5(+) signaling endosomes. CD2AP mRNA and protein levels were increased in neurons during collateral sprouting but decreased following injury, suggesting that, although typically considered together, these two adult axonal growth processes are fundamentally different. These data position CD2AP as a major intracellular signaling molecule coordinating NGF signaling to regulate collateral sprouting and structural plasticity of intact adult axons. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Growth of noninjured axons in the adult nervous system contributes to adaptive and maladaptive plasticity, and dysfunction of this process may contribute to neurologic pathologies. Functional screening of genes regulated during growth of noninjured axons revealed CD2AP as a positive regulator of axon outgrowth. A novel association of CD2AP with TrkA and p85 suggests a distinct intracellular signaling pathway regulating growth of noninjured axons. This may also represent a novel mechanism of generating specificity in multifunctional NGF signaling. Divergent regulation of CD2AP in different axon growth conditions suggests that separate mechanisms exist for different modes of axon growth. CD2AP is the first signaling molecule associated with adult sensory axonal collateral sprouting, and this association may offer new insights for NGF/TrkA-related Alzheimer's disease mechanisms.

Aberrant coordination geometries discovered in the most abundant metalloproteins.

Metalloproteins bind and utilize metal ions for a variety of biological purposes. Due to the ubiquity of metalloprotein involvement throughout these processes across all domains of life, how proteins coordinate metal ions for different biochemical functions is of great relevance to understanding the implementation of these biological processes. Toward these ends, we have improved our methodology for structurally and functionally characterizing metal binding sites in metalloproteins. Our new ligand detection method is statistically much more robust, producing estimated false positive and false negative rates of ∼0.11% and ∼1.2%, respectively. Additional improvements expand both the range of metal ions and their coordination number that can be effectively analyzed. Also, the inclusion of additional quality control filters has significantly improved structure-function Spearman correlations as demonstrated by rho values greater than 0.90 for several metal coordination analyses and even one rho value above 0.95. Also, improvements in bond-length distributions have revealed bond-length modes specific to chemical functional groups involved in multidentation. Using these improved methods, we analyzed all single metal ion binding sites with Zn, Mg, Ca, Fe, and Na ions in the wwPDB, producing statistically rigorous results supporting the existence of both a significant number of unexpected compressed angles and subsequent aberrant metal ion coordination geometries (CGs) within structurally known metalloproteins. By recognizing these aberrant CGs in our clustering analyses, high correlations are achieved between structural and functional descriptions of metal ion coordination. Moreover, distinct biochemical functions are associated with aberrant CGs versus nonaberrant CGs. Proteins 2017; 85:885-907. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Perspectives and expectations in structural bioinformatics of metalloproteins.

Recent papers highlight the presence of large numbers of compressed angles in metal ion coordination geometries for metalloprotein entries in the worldwide Protein Data Bank, due mainly to multidentate coordination. The prevalence of these compressed angles has raised the controversial idea that significantly populated aberrant or even novel coordination geometries may exist. Some of these papers have undergone severe criticism, apparently due to views held that only canonical coordination geometries exist in significant numbers. While criticism of controversial ideas is warranted and to be expected, we believe that a line was crossed where unfair criticism was put forth to discredit an inconvenient result that compressed angles exist in large numbers, which does not support the dogmatic canonical coordination geometry view. We present a review of the major controversial results and their criticisms, pointing out both good suggestions that have been incorporated in new analyses, but also unfair criticism that was put forth to support a particular view. We also suggest that better science is enabled through: (i) a more collegial and collaborative approach in future critical reviews and (ii) the requirement for a description of methods and data including source code and visualizations that enables full reproducibility of results. Proteins 2017; 85:938-944. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Framework for reanalysis of publicly available Affymetrix® GeneChip® data sets based on functional regions of interest.

BACKGROUND: Since the introduction of microarrays in 1995, researchers world-wide have used both commercial and custom-designed microarrays for understanding differential expression of transcribed genes. Public databases such as ArrayExpress and the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) have made millions of samples readily available. One main drawback to microarray data analysis involves the selection of probes to represent a specific transcript of interest, particularly in light of the fact that transcript-specific knowledge (notably alternative splicing) is dynamic in nature. RESULTS: We therefore developed a framework for reannotating and reassigning probe groups for Affymetrix® GeneChip® technology based on functional regions of interest. This framework addresses three issues of Affymetrix® GeneChip® data analyses: removing nonspecific probes, updating probe target mapping based on the latest genome knowledge and grouping probes into gene, transcript and region-based (UTR, individual exon, CDS) probe sets. Updated gene and transcript probe sets provide more specific analysis results based on current genomic and transcriptomic knowledge. The framework selects unique probes, aligns them to gene annotations and generates a custom Chip Description File (CDF). The analysis reveals only 87% of the Affymetrix® GeneChip® HG-U133 Plus 2 probes uniquely align to the current hg38 human assembly without mismatches. We also tested new mappings on the publicly available data series using rat and human data from GSE48611 and GSE72551 obtained from GEO, and illustrate that functional grouping allows for the subtle detection of regions of interest likely to have phenotypical consequences. CONCLUSION: Through reanalysis of the publicly available data series GSE48611 and GSE72551, we profiled the contribution of UTR and CDS regions to the gene expression levels globally. The comparison between region and gene based results indicated that the detected expressed genes by gene-based and region-based CDFs show high consistency and regions based results allows us to detection of changes in transcript formation.