Spatial Chromosome Folding and Active Transcription Drive DNA Fragility and Formation of Oncogenic MLL Translocations.

How spatial chromosome organization influences genome integrity is still poorly understood. Here, we show that DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) mediated by topoisomerase 2 (TOP2) activities are enriched at chromatin loop anchors with high transcriptional activity. Recurrent DSBs occur at CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) and cohesin-bound sites at the bases of chromatin loops, and their frequency positively correlates with transcriptional output and directionality. The physiological relevance of this preferential positioning is indicated by the finding that genes recurrently translocating to drive leukemias are highly transcribed and are enriched at loop anchors. These genes accumulate DSBs at recurrent hotspots that give rise to chromosomal fusions relying on the activity of both TOP2 isoforms and on transcriptional elongation. We propose that transcription and 3D chromosome folding jointly pose a threat to genomic stability and are key contributors to the occurrence of genome rearrangements that drive cancer.

HMGB2 Loss upon Senescence Entry Disrupts Genomic Organization and Induces CTCF Clustering across Cell Types.

Processes like cellular senescence are characterized by complex events giving rise to heterogeneous cell populations. However, the early molecular events driving this cascade remain elusive. We hypothesized that senescence entry is triggered by an early disruption of the cells' three-dimensional (3D) genome organization. To test this, we combined Hi-C, single-cell and population transcriptomics, imaging, and in silico modeling of three distinct cells types entering senescence. Genes involved in DNA conformation maintenance are suppressed upon senescence entry across all cell types. We show that nuclear depletion of the abundant HMGB2 protein occurs early on the path to senescence and coincides with the dramatic spatial clustering of CTCF. Knocking down HMGB2 suffices for senescence-induced CTCF clustering and for loop reshuffling, while ectopically expressing HMGB2 rescues these effects. Our data suggest that HMGB2-mediated genomic reorganization constitutes a primer for the ensuing senescent program.

53BP1-mediated recruitment of RASSF1A to ribosomal DNA breaks promotes local ATM signaling.

DNA lesions occur across the genome and constitute a threat to cell viability; however, damage at specific genomic loci has a relatively greater impact on overall genome stability. The ribosomal RNA gene repeats (rDNA) are emerging fragile sites. Recent progress in understanding how the rDNA damage response is organized has highlighted a key role of adaptor proteins. Here, we show that the scaffold tumor suppressor RASSF1A is recruited to rDNA breaks. RASSF1A recruitment to double-strand breaks is mediated by 53BP1 and depends on RASSF1A phosphorylation at Serine 131 by ATM kinase. Employing targeted rDNA damage, we uncover that RASSF1A recruitment promotes local ATM signaling. RASSF1A silencing, a common epigenetic event during malignant transformation, results in persistent breaks, rDNA copy number alterations and decreased cell viability. Overall, we identify a novel role for RASSF1A at rDNA break sites, provide mechanistic insight into how the DNA damage response is organized in a chromatin context, and provide further evidence for how silencing of the RASSF1A tumor suppressor contributes to genome instability.

Cdt1 overexpression drives colorectal carcinogenesis through origin overlicensing and DNA damage.

Chromatin licensing and DNA replication factor 1 (CDT1), a protein of the pre-replicative complex, is essential for loading the minichromosome maintenance complex (MCM) helicases onto the origins of DNA replication. While several studies have shown that dysregulation of CDT1 expression causes re-replication and DNA damage in cell lines, and CDT1 is highly expressed in several human cancers, whether CDT1 deregulation is sufficient to enhance tumorigenesis in vivo is currently unclear. To delineate its role in vivo, we overexpressed Cdt1 in the mouse colon and induced carcinogenesis using azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS). Here, we show that mice overexpressing Cdt1 develop a significantly higher number of tumors with increased tumor size, and more severe dysplastic changes (high-grade dysplasia), compared with control mice under the same treatment. These tumors exhibited an increased growth rate, while cells overexpressing Cdt1 loaded greater amounts of Mcm2 onto chromatin, demonstrating origin overlicensing. Adenomas overexpressing Cdt1 showed activation of the DNA damage response (DDR), apoptosis, formation of micronuclei, and chromosome segregation errors, indicating that aberrant expression of Cdt1 results in increased genomic and chromosomal instability in vivo, favoring cancer development. In line with these results, high-level expression of CDT1 in human colorectal cancer tissue specimens and colorectal cancer cell lines correlated significantly with increased origin licensing, activation of the DDR, and microsatellite instability (MSI). © 2022 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

PARP1 proximity proteomics reveals interaction partners at stressed replication forks.

PARP1 mediates poly-ADP-ribosylation of proteins on chromatin in response to different types of DNA lesions. PARP inhibitors are used for the treatment of BRCA1/2-deficient breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer. Loss of DNA replication fork protection is proposed as one mechanism that contributes to the vulnerability of BRCA1/2-deficient cells to PARP inhibitors. However, the mechanisms that regulate PARP1 activity at stressed replication forks remain poorly understood. Here, we performed proximity proteomics of PARP1 and isolation of proteins on stressed replication forks to map putative PARP1 regulators. We identified TPX2 as a direct PARP1-binding protein that regulates the auto-ADP-ribosylation activity of PARP1. TPX2 interacts with DNA damage response proteins and promotes homology-directed repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Moreover, TPX2 mRNA levels are increased in BRCA1/2-mutated breast and prostate cancers, and high TPX2 expression levels correlate with the sensitivity of cancer cells to PARP-trapping inhibitors. We propose that TPX2 confers a mitosis-independent function in the cellular response to replication stress by interacting with PARP1.

53BP1-DNA repair enters a new liquid phase.

In response to DNA damage, transient repair compartments in the nucleus concentrate repair proteins and activate downstream signaling factors. In this issue of The EMBO Journal, Kilic et al show that DNA repair focal assemblies marked by accumulation of 53BP1 are phase separated liquid compartments. This liquid droplet-like behavior of 53BP1 compartments might help to coordinate local lesion recognition with global gene activation in response to DNA damage.

PARP-1 protects against colorectal tumor induction, but promotes inflammation-driven colorectal tumor progression.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common tumor entities, which is causally linked to DNA repair defects and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Here, we studied the role of the DNA repair protein poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) in CRC. Tissue microarray analysis revealed PARP-1 overexpression in human CRC, correlating with disease progression. To elucidate its function in CRC, PARP-1 deficient (PARP-1-/-) and wild-type animals (WT) were subjected to azoxymethane (AOM)/ dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colorectal carcinogenesis. Miniendoscopy showed significantly more tumors in WT than in PARP-1-/- mice. Although the lack of PARP-1 moderately increased DNA damage, both genotypes exhibited comparable levels of AOM-induced autophagy and cell death. Interestingly, miniendoscopy revealed a higher AOM/DSS-triggered intestinal inflammation in WT animals, which was associated with increased levels of innate immune cells and proinflammatory cytokines. Tumors in WT animals were more aggressive, showing higher levels of STAT3 activation and cyclin D1 up-regulation. PARP-1-/- animals were then crossed with O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT)-deficient animals hypersensitive to AOM. Intriguingly, PARP-1-/-/MGMT-/- double knockout (DKO) mice developed more, but much smaller tumors than MGMT-/- animals. In contrast to MGMT-deficient mice, DKO animals showed strongly reduced AOM-dependent colonic cell death despite similar O6-methylguanine levels. Studies with PARP-1-/- cells provided evidence for increased alkylation-induced DNA strand break formation when MGMT was inhibited, suggesting a role of PARP-1 in the response to O6-methylguanine adducts. Our findings reveal PARP-1 as a double-edged sword in colorectal carcinogenesis, which suppresses tumor initiation following DNA alkylation in a MGMT-dependent manner, but promotes inflammation-driven tumor progression.

Dynamics of Double-Strand Breaks: Implications for the Formation of Chromosome Translocations.

Illegitimate joining of chromosome breaks can lead to the formation of chromosome translocations, a catastrophic type of genome rearrangements that often plays key roles in tumorigenesis. Emerging evidence suggests that the mobility of broken DNA loci can be an important determinant in partner search and clustering of individual breaks, events that can influence translocation frequency. We summarize here the recent literature on the mechanisms that regulate chromatin movement, focusing on studies exploring the motion properties of double-strand breaks in the context of chromatin, the functional consequences for DNA repair, and the formation of chromosome fusions.

Multi-step loading of human minichromosome maintenance proteins in live human cells.

Once-per-cell cycle replication is regulated through the assembly onto chromatin of multisubunit protein complexes that license DNA for a further round of replication. Licensing consists of the loading of the hexameric MCM2-7 complex onto chromatin during G1 phase and is dependent on the licensing factor Cdt1. In vitro experiments have suggested a two-step binding mode for minichromosome maintenance (MCM) proteins, with transient initial interactions converted to stable chromatin loading. Here, we assess MCM loading in live human cells using an in vivo licensing assay on the basis of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching of GFP-tagged MCM protein subunits through the cell cycle. We show that, in telophase, MCM2 and MCM4 maintain transient interactions with chromatin, exhibiting kinetics similar to Cdt1. These are converted to stable interactions from early G1 phase. The immobile fraction of MCM2 and MCM4 increases during G1 phase, suggestive of reiterative licensing. In late G1 phase, a large fraction of MCM proteins are loaded onto chromatin, with maximal licensing observed just prior to S phase onset. Fluorescence loss in photobleaching experiments show subnuclear concentrations of MCM-chromatin interactions that differ as G1 phase progresses and do not colocalize with sites of DNA synthesis in S phase.

Interconnected contribution of tissue morphogenesis and the nuclear protein NuMA to the DNA damage response.

Epithelial tissue morphogenesis is accompanied by the formation of a polarity axis--a feature of tissue architecture that is initiated by the binding of integrins to the basement membrane. Polarity plays a crucial role in tissue homeostasis, preserving differentiation, cell survival and resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs among others. An important aspect in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis is genome integrity. As normal tissues frequently experience DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), we asked how tissue architecture might participate in the DNA damage response. Using 3D culture models that mimic mammary glandular morphogenesis and tumor formation, we show that DSB repair activity is higher in basally polarized tissues, regardless of the malignant status of cells, and is controlled by hemidesmosomal integrin signaling. In the absence of glandular morphogenesis, in 2D flat monolayer cultures, basal polarity does not affect DNA repair activity but enhances H2AX phosphorylation, an early chromatin response to DNA damage. The nuclear mitotic apparatus protein 1 (NuMA), which controls breast glandular morphogenesis by acting on the organization of chromatin, displays a polarity-dependent pattern and redistributes in the cell nucleus of basally polarized cells upon the induction of DSBs. This is shown using high-content analysis of nuclear morphometric descriptors. Furthermore, silencing NuMA impairs H2AX phosphorylation--thus, tissue polarity and NuMA cooperate to maintain genome integrity.

Deep Imaging: the next frontier in microscopy.

The microscope is the quintessential tool for discovery in cell biology. From its earliest incarnation as a tool to make the unseen visible, microscopes have been at the center of most revolutionizing developments in cell biology, histology and pathology. Major quantum leaps in imaging involved the dramatic improvements in resolution to see increasingly smaller structures, methods to visualize specific molecules inside of cells and tissues, and the ability to peer into living cells to study dynamics of molecules and cellular structures. The latest revolution in microscopy is Deep Imaging-the ability to look at very large numbers of samples by high-throughput microscopy at high spatial and temporal resolution. This approach is rooted in the development of fully automated high-resolution microscopes and the application of advanced computational image analysis and mining methods. Deep Imaging is enabling two novel, powerful approaches in cell biology: the ability to image thousands of samples with high optical precision allows every discernible morphological pattern to be used as a read-out in large-scale imaging-based screens, particularly in conjunction with RNAi-based screening technology; in addition, the capacity to capture large numbers of images, combined with advanced computational image analysis methods, has also opened the door to detect and analyze very rare cellular events. These two applications of Deep Imaging are revolutionizing cell biology.

Linking CRISPR-Cas9 double-strand break profiles to gene editing precision with BreakTag.

Cas9 can cleave DNA in both blunt and staggered configurations, resulting in distinct editing outcomes, but what dictates the type of Cas9 incisions is largely unknown. In this study, we developed BreakTag, a versatile method for profiling Cas9-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and identifying the determinants of Cas9 incisions. Overall, we assessed cleavage by SpCas9 at more than 150,000 endogenous on-target and off-target sites targeted by approximately 3,500 single guide RNAs. We found that approximately 35% of SpCas9 DSBs are staggered, and the type of incision is influenced by DNA:gRNA complementarity and the use of engineered Cas9 variants. A machine learning model shows that Cas9 incision is dependent on the protospacer sequence and that human genetic variation impacts the configuration of Cas9 cuts and the DSB repair outcome. Matched datasets of Cas9 and engineered variant incisions with repair outcomes show that Cas9-mediated staggered breaks are linked with precise, templated and predictable single-nucleotide insertions, demonstrating that a scission-based gRNA design can be used to correct clinically relevant pathogenic single-nucleotide deletions.

Targeting PARP-1 and DNA Damage Response Defects in Colorectal Cancer Chemotherapy with Established and Novel PARP Inhibitors.

The DNA repair protein PARP-1 emerged as a valuable target in the treatment of tumor entities with deficiencies of BRCA1/2, such as breast cancer. More recently, the application of PARP inhibitors (PARPi) such as olaparib has been expanded to other cancer entities including colorectal cancer (CRC). We previously demonstrated that PARP-1 is overexpressed in human CRC and promotes CRC progression in a mouse model. However, acquired resistance to PARPi and cytotoxicity-mediated adverse effects limit their clinical applicability. Here, we detailed the role of PARP-1 as a therapeutic target in CRC and studied the efficacy of novel PARPi compounds in wildtype (WT) and DNA repair-deficient CRC cell lines together with the chemotherapeutics irinotecan (IT), 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), and oxaliplatin (OXA). Based on the ComPlat molecule archive, we identified novel PARPi candidates by molecular docking experiments in silico, which were then confirmed by in vitro PARP activity measurements. Two promising candidates (X17613 and X17618) also showed potent PARP-1 inhibition in a CRC cell-based assay. In contrast to olaparib, the PARPi candidates caused no PARP-1 trapping and, consistently, were not or only weakly cytotoxic in WT CRC cells and their BRCA2- or ATR-deficient counterparts. Importantly, both PARPi candidates did not affect the viability of nonmalignant human colonic epithelial cells. While both olaparib and veliparib increased the sensitivity of WT CRC cells towards IT, no synergism was observed for X17613 and X17618. Finally, we provided evidence that all PARPi (olaparib > veliparib > X17613 > X17618) synergize with chemotherapeutic drugs (IT > OXA) in a BRCA2-dependent manner in CRC cells, whereas ATR deficiency had only a minor impact. Collectively, our study identified novel lead structures with potent PARP-1 inhibitory activity in CRC cells but low cytotoxicity due to the lack of PARP-1 trapping, which synergized with IT in homologous recombination deficiency.

High clonal diversity and spatial genetic admixture in early prostate cancer and surrounding normal tissue.

Somatic copy number alterations (SCNAs) are pervasive in advanced human cancers, but their prevalence and spatial distribution in early-stage, localized tumors and their surrounding normal tissues are poorly characterized. Here, we perform multi-region, single-cell DNA sequencing to characterize the SCNA landscape across tumor-rich and normal tissue in two male patients with localized prostate cancer. We identify two distinct karyotypes: 'pseudo-diploid' cells harboring few SCNAs and highly aneuploid cells. Pseudo-diploid cells form numerous small-sized subclones ranging from highly spatially localized to broadly spread subclones. In contrast, aneuploid cells do not form subclones and are detected throughout the prostate, including normal tissue regions. Highly localized pseudo-diploid subclones are confined within tumor-rich regions and carry deletions in multiple tumor-suppressor genes. Our study reveals that SCNAs are widespread in normal and tumor regions across the prostate in localized prostate cancer patients and suggests that a subset of pseudo-diploid cells drive tumorigenesis in the aging prostate.

Dynamic recruitment of licensing factor Cdt1 to sites of DNA damage.

For genomic integrity to be maintained, the cell cycle and DNA damage responses must be linked. Cdt1, a G1-specific cell-cycle factor, is targeted for proteolysis by the Cul4-Ddb1(Cdt2) ubiquitin ligase following DNA damage. Using a laser nanosurgery microscope to generate spatially restricted DNA damage within the living cell nucleus, we show that Cdt1 is recruited onto damaged sites in G1 phase cells, within seconds of DNA damage induction. PCNA, Cdt2, Cul4, DDB1 and p21(Cip1) also accumulate rapidly to damaged sites. Cdt1 recruitment is PCNA-dependent, whereas PCNA and Cdt2 recruitment are independent of Cdt1. Fitting of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching profiles to an analytic reaction-diffusion model shows that Cdt1 and p21(Cip1) exhibit highly dynamic binding at the site of damage, whereas PCNA appears immobile. Cdt2 exhibits both a rapidly exchanging and an apparently immobile subpopulation. Our data suggest that PCNA provides an immobile binding interface for dynamic Cdt1 interactions at the site of damage, which leads to rapid Cdt1 recruitment to damaged DNA, preceding Cdt1 degradation.

RECON syndrome is a genome instability disorder caused by mutations in the DNA helicase RECQL1.

Despite being the first homolog of the bacterial RecQ helicase to be identified in humans, the function of RECQL1 remains poorly characterized. Furthermore, unlike other members of the human RECQ family of helicases, mutations in RECQL1 have not been associated with a genetic disease. Here, we identify 2 families with a genome instability disorder that we have named RECON (RECql ONe) syndrome, caused by biallelic mutations in the RECQL gene. The affected individuals had short stature, progeroid facial features, a hypoplastic nose, xeroderma, and skin photosensitivity and were homozygous for the same missense mutation in RECQL1 (p.Ala459Ser), located within its zinc binding domain. Biochemical analysis of the mutant RECQL1 protein revealed that the p.A459S missense mutation compromised its ATPase, helicase, and fork restoration activity, while its capacity to promote single-strand DNA annealing was largely unaffected. At the cellular level, this mutation in RECQL1 gave rise to a defect in the ability to repair DNA damage induced by exposure to topoisomerase poisons and a failure of DNA replication to progress efficiently in the presence of abortive topoisomerase lesions. Taken together, RECQL1 is the fourth member of the RecQ family of helicases to be associated with a human genome instability disorder.

R-loop proximity proteomics identifies a role of DDX41 in transcription-associated genomic instability.

Transcription poses a threat to genomic stability through the formation of R-loops that can obstruct progression of replication forks. R-loops are three-stranded nucleic acid structures formed by an RNA-DNA hybrid with a displaced non-template DNA strand. We developed RNA-DNA Proximity Proteomics to map the R-loop proximal proteome of human cells using quantitative mass spectrometry. We implicate different cellular proteins in R-loop regulation and identify a role of the tumor suppressor DDX41 in opposing R-loop and double strand DNA break accumulation in promoters. DDX41 is enriched in promoter regions in vivo, and can unwind RNA-DNA hybrids in vitro. R-loop accumulation upon loss of DDX41 is accompanied with replication stress, an increase in the formation of double strand DNA breaks and transcriptome changes associated with the inflammatory response. Germline loss-of-function mutations in DDX41 lead to predisposition to acute myeloid leukemia in adulthood. We propose that R-loop accumulation and genomic instability-associated inflammatory response may contribute to the development of familial AML with mutated DDX41.

RNA polymerase II is required for spatial chromatin reorganization following exit from mitosis.

Mammalian chromosomes are three-dimensional entities shaped by converging and opposing forces. Mitotic cell division induces marked chromosome condensation, but following reentry into the G1 phase of the cell cycle, chromosomes reestablish their interphase organization. Here, we tested the role of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) in this transition using a cell line that allows its auxin-mediated degradation. In situ Hi-C showed that RNAPII is required for both compartment and loop establishment following mitosis. RNAPs often counteract loop extrusion, and in their absence, longer and more prominent loops arose. Evidence from chromatin binding, super-resolution imaging, and in silico modeling allude to these effects being a result of RNAPII-mediated cohesin loading upon G1 reentry. Our findings reconcile the role of RNAPII in gene expression with that in chromatin architecture.