Synthesis of Azonia Aromatic Heterocycles Bearing 6-6-6-5-6 Pentacyclic Core via Intramolecular [4 + 2]-Cycloaddition and Oxidative Aromatization Reaction Sequence in One Pot.

Cationic aza-heterocycle-fused compounds have gained wide applications in materials science, biological applications, and synthetic organic chemistry. In this report, synthesis of benzothiazolochromenopyridinium tetrafluoroborates, a novel molecular scaffold, bearing 6-6-6-5-6 pentacyclic core is described that proceeds via (i) piperidine-catalyzed Knoevenagel condensation between 2-propargyloxyarylaldehydes bearing internal alkynes and 2-benzothiazoleacetonitrile, (ii) intramolecular formal [4 + 2]-cycloaddition, and (iii) crucial molecular oxygen-mediated oxidative aromatization reaction sequence in one pot. These quaternary pyridinium salts are obtained at ambient temperature in good to high yields.

Engineering Cancer Antigen-Specific T Cells to Overcome the Immunosuppressive Effects of TGF-ß.

Adoptive T cell therapy with T cells expressing affinity-enhanced TCRs has shown promising results in phase 1/2 clinical trials for solid and hematological tumors. However, depth and durability of responses to adoptive T cell therapy can suffer from an inhibitory tumor microenvironment. A common immune-suppressive agent is TGF-ß, which is secreted by tumor cells and cells recruited to the tumor. We investigated whether human T cells could be engineered to be resistant to inhibition by TGF-ß. Truncating the intracellular signaling domain from TGF-ß receptor (TGFßR) II produces a dominant-negative receptor (dnTGFßRII) that dimerizes with endogenous TGFßRI to form a receptor that can bind TGF-ß but cannot signal. We previously generated specific peptide enhanced affinity receptor TCRs recognizing the HLA-A*02-restricted peptides New York esophageal squamous cell carcinoma 1 (NY-ESO-1)157-165/l-Ag family member-1A (TCR: GSK3377794, formerly NY-ESO-1c259) and melanoma Ag gene A10254-262 (TCR: ADP-A2M10, formerly melanoma Ag gene A10c796). In this article, we show that exogenous TGF-ß inhibited in vitro proliferation and effector functions of human T cells expressing these first-generation high-affinity TCRs, whereas inhibition was reduced or abolished in the case of second-generation TCRs coexpressed with dnTGFßRII (e.g., GSK3845097). TGF-ß isoforms and a panel of TGF-ß-associated genes are overexpressed in a range of cancer indications in which NY-ESO-1 is commonly expressed, particularly in synovial sarcoma. As an example, immunohistochemistry/RNAscope identified TGF-ß-positive cells close to T cells in tumor nests and stroma, which had low frequencies of cells expressing IFN-γ in a non-small cell lung cancer setting. Coexpression of dnTGFßRII may therefore improve the efficacy of TCR-transduced T cells.

Tuning T-Cell Receptor Affinity to Optimize Clinical Risk-Benefit When Targeting Alpha-Fetoprotein-Positive Liver Cancer.

Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have a poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is often expressed at high levels in HCC and is an established clinical biomarker of the disease. Expression of AFP in nonmalignant liver can occur, particularly in a subset of progenitor cells and during chronic inflammation, at levels typically lower than in HCC. This cancer-specific overexpression indicates that AFP may be a promising target for immunotherapy. We verified expression of AFP in normal and diseased tissue and generated an affinity-optimized T-cell receptor (TCR) with specificity to AFP/HLA-A*02+ tumors. Expression of AFP was investigated using database searches, by qPCR, and by immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis of a panel of human tissue samples, including normal, diseased, and malignant liver. Using in vitro mutagenesis and screening, we generated a TCR that recognizes the HLA-A*02-restricted AFP158-166 peptide, FMNKFIYEI, with an optimum balance of potency and specificity. These properties were confirmed by an extension of the alanine scan (X-scan) and testing TCR-transduced T cells against normal and tumor cells covering a variety of tissues, cell types, and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles. Conclusion: We have used a combination of physicochemical, in silico, and cell biology methods for optimizing a TCR for improved affinity and function, with properties that are expected to allow TCR-transduced T cells to differentiate between antigen levels on nonmalignant and cancer cells. T cells transduced with this TCR constitute the basis for a trial of HCC adoptive T-cell immunotherapy.

Deviations of dynamic parameters characterizing enthalpic and dielectric relaxations in glass forming alkyl phosphates.

In our recent study [T. Wu et al., J. Chem. Phys. 147, 134501 (2017)], an alkyl phosphate glass former was studied and it suggested that the enthalpy relaxation involving the motions of all parts of the molecule is global, while the dielectric relaxation detects the local rotation of the polar core. In this work, we study a series of trialkyl phosphates using calorimetric and dielectric measurements over a wide temperature range. The results indicate a departure of the dielectric fragility indexes from the enthalpic ones as the length of the branch chain increases in the trialkyl phosphates. The Kirkwood correlation factor (g k ) is found to coincide at ∼0.6 at glass transition temperature (T g ) from triethyl phosphate to tributyl phosphate, indicating a similar structural alignment. The enthalpic relaxation serving as the more fundamental relaxation relevant to the structural relaxation is confirmed. Strikingly, we observed the relation of T g to the chain length in alkyl phosphates, revealing a minimum T g behavior, and its explanation assists in the understanding of the glass transition in relation to the structure of the glass-formers.

Interplay of intermolecular interactions and flexibility to mediate glass forming ability and fragility: A study of chemical analogs.

We have investigated the enthalpic and dielectric relaxations of four groups of quinoline analogs having similar structural properties (i.e., rigidity, stiffness, and bulkiness) but a different steric character and the nature of intermolecular interactions and flexibility. The dielectric fragility index (md) and the enthalpic one (mH), determined by the Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan-Hodge formalism, are comparable. Generally, for the four sets of molecules of similar structures, both the interactions and flexibility are found to be critical in making the large span of fragility (i.e., from 59 to 131) and glass forming ability. By contrast, individual impacts of the interaction and flexibility can only explain fragility partly among each group of isomers. We found that the molecules with high fragility are of relatively low liquid density, reflecting the joint impact of the interactions and flexibility. An interesting result is observed among the isomers that the molecules which are fragile have enhanced glass forming ability. The results are unveiling the joint impacts of molecular structure (flexibility) and intermolecular interaction on the molecular dynamics.

Presence of global and local α-relaxations in an alkyl phosphate glass former.

The dynamics of a molecular glass former, tributyl phosphate (TBP), with an alkyl phosphate structure (three alkyl branches emanating from a polar core of PO4) is studied in the supercooled regime by dielectric and thermal (or enthalpic) relaxations. The dielectric fragility index md and the stretching exponent ßd of the Kohlrausch-Williams-Watts correlation function are determined. Analyses of the enthalpic relaxation data by the Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan-Hodge formalism yield the enthalpic fragility index mH and stretching exponent ßH. The large difference between the dielectric md and the enthalpic mH, as well as between ßd and ßH, is a remarkable finding. The differences are interpreted by the formation of molecular self-assemblies. The interpretation is supported by the quite comparable fragility determined by viscosity and the enthalpic relaxation. The Kirkwood factor calculated at low temperatures is also consistent with the interpretation. The results suggest that the enthalpic relaxation involving the motions of all parts of TBP is global, while the dielectric relaxation detects the local rotation, which might originate from the rotation of the dipole moment of the core. The presence of two structural α-relaxations, one global and one local, with a large difference in dynamics is revealed for the first time in a molecular glass former.

Zap70 is essential for long-term survival of naive CD8 T cells.

Survival of naive T cells requires engagement of TCR with self-peptide major histocompatibility Ags. The signaling pathways required to transmit this survival signal are poorly understood. In this study, we asked whether the tyrosine kinase Zap70 is required to transmit survival signals in naive CD8 T cells. In the absence of Zap70 expression, thymic development is completely blocked. Using a tetracycline-inducible Zap70 transgene (TetZap70), thymic development of Zap70-deficient TCR transgenic F5 mice was restored. Feeding mice doxycycline to induce Zap70 expression resulted in repopulation of the peripheral naive compartment. Zap70 transgene expression was then ablated by withdrawal of doxycycline. Survival of Zap70-deficient naive CD8 T cells depended on host environment. In hosts with a replete T cell compartment, naive T cells died rapidly in the absence of Zap70 expression. In lymphopenic hosts, Zap70-deficient T cells survived far longer, in an IL-7-dependent manner, but failed to undergo lymphopenia-induced proliferation. Analyzing mixed bone marrow chimeras revealed that intact Zap70-dependent signaling was important for integration of recent thymic emigrants into the mature naive compartment. Finally, we asked whether adaptor function conferred by Zap70 tyrosines 315 and 319 was necessary for transmission of homeostatic TCR signals. This was done by analyzing F5 mice expressing mutant Zap70 in which these residues had been mutated to alanines (Zap70(YYAA)). Inducible Zap70 expression rescued thymic development in F5 TetZap70 Zap70(YYAA) mice. However, in the absence of wild-type Zap70 expression, the Zap70(YYAA) mutant failed to transmit either survival or proliferative homeostatic signals.

Enhancing Efficacy of TCR-engineered CD4 + T Cells Via Coexpression of CD8α.

Adoptive cell therapy with T cells expressing affinity-enhanced T-cell receptors (TCRs) is a promising treatment for solid tumors. Efforts are ongoing to further engineer these T cells to increase the depth and durability of clinical responses and broaden efficacy toward additional indications. In the present study, we investigated one such approach: T cells were transduced with a lentiviral vector to coexpress an affinity-enhanced HLA class I-restricted TCR directed against MAGE-A4 alongside a CD8α coreceptor. We hypothesized that this approach would enhance CD4 + T-cell helper and effector functions, possibly leading to a more potent antitumor response. Activation of transduced CD4 + T cells was measured by detecting CD40 ligand expression on the surface and cytokine and chemokine secretion from CD4 + T cells and dendritic cells cultured with melanoma-associated antigen A4 + tumor cells. In addition, T-cell cytotoxic activity against 3-dimensional tumor spheroids was measured. Our data demonstrated that CD4 + T cells coexpressing the TCR and CD8α coreceptor displayed enhanced responses, including CD40 ligand expression, interferon-gamma secretion, and cytotoxic activity, along with improved dendritic cell activation. Therefore, our study supports the addition of the CD8α coreceptor to HLA class I-restricted TCR-engineered T cells to enhance CD4 + T-cell functions, which may potentially improve the depth and durability of antitumor responses in patients.

IL-7 determines the homeostatic fitness of T cells by distinct mechanisms at different signalling thresholds in vivo.

The cytokine interleukin (IL)-7 is essential for Treg-cell homeostasis. It remains unclear, however, whether IL-7 regulates the homeostatic fitness of T cells quantitatively and, if so, by what mechanisms. We addressed this question by analysing T cells exposed to different levels of IL-7 signalling in vivo. Using TCR transgenic mice that conditionally express IL-7Rα, we show that T-cell longevity in the absence of survival cues is not a cell-intrinsic property but rather a dynamic process of which IL-7 signalling is a key regulator. Naïve T cells deficient in IL-7Rα expression underwent rapid cell death within hours of in vitro culture. In contrast, the same T cells from lymphopenic hosts, in which IL-7 is non-limiting, were able to survive in culture independently of growth factors for many days. Surprisingly, different levels of IL-7 signalling in vivo evoked distinct molecular mechanisms to regulate homeostatic fitness. When IL-7 was non-limiting, increased survival was associated with up-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl2 family members. In contrast, in T-cell replete conditions i.e. when IL-7 is limiting, we found evidence that IL-7 regulated T-cell fitness by distinct non-transcriptional mechanisms. Together, these data demonstrate a quantitative aspect to IL-7 signalling dependent on distinct molecular mechanisms.

Lymphotoxin signals from positively selected thymocytes regulate the terminal differentiation of medullary thymic epithelial cells.

The thymic medulla represents a key site for the induction of T cell tolerance. In particular, autoimmune regulator (Aire)-expressing medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) provide a spectrum of tissue-restricted Ags that, through both direct presentation and cross-presentation by dendritic cells, purge the developing T cell repertoire of autoimmune specificities. Despite this role, the mechanisms of Aire(+) mTEC development remain unclear, particularly those stages that occur post-Aire expression and represent mTEC terminal differentiation. In this study, in mouse thymus, we analyze late-stage mTEC development in relation to the timing and requirements for Aire and involucrin expression, the latter a marker of terminally differentiated epithelium including Hassall's corpuscles. We show that Aire expression and terminal differentiation within the mTEC lineage are temporally separable events that are controlled by distinct mechanisms. We find that whereas mature thymocytes are not essential for Aire(+) mTEC development, use of an inducible ZAP70 transgenic mouse line--in which positive selection can be temporally controlled--demonstrates that the emergence of involucrin(+) mTECs critically depends upon the presence of mature single positive thymocytes. Finally, although initial formation of Aire(+) mTECs depends upon RANK signaling, continued mTEC development to the involucrin(+) stage maps to activation of the LTα-LTßR axis by mature thymocytes. Collectively, our results reveal further complexity in the mechanisms regulating thymus medulla development and highlight the role of distinct TNFRs in initial and terminal differentiation stages in mTECs.

Regulation of T cell-dendritic cell interactions by IL-7 governs T-cell activation and homeostasis.

Interleukin-7 (IL-7) plays a central role in the homeostasis of the T-cell compartment by regulating T-cell survival and proliferation. Whether IL-7 can influence T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling in T cells remains controversial. Here, using IL-7-deficient hosts and TCR-transgenic T cells that conditionally express IL-7R, we examined antigen-specific T-cell responses in vitro and in vivo to viral infection and lymphopenia to determine whether IL-7 signaling influences TCR-triggered cell division events. In vitro, we could find no evidence that IL-7 signaling could costimulate T-cell activation over a broad range of conditions, suggesting that IL-7 does not directly tune TCR signaling. In vivo, however, we found an acute requirement for IL-7 signaling for efficiently triggering T-cell responses to influenza A virus challenge. Furthermore, we found that IL-7 was required for the enhanced homeostatic TCR signaling that drives lymphopenia-induced proliferation by a mechanism involving efficient contacts of T cells with dendritic cells. Consistent with this, saturating antigen-presenting capacity in vivo overcame the triggering defect in response to cognate peptide. Thus, we demonstrate a novel role for IL-7 in regulating T cell-dendritic cell interactions that is essential for both T-cell homeostasis and activation in vivo.

Preclinical evaluation of an affinity-enhanced MAGE-A4-specific T-cell receptor for adoptive T-cell therapy.

A substantial obstacle to the success of adoptive T cell-based cancer immunotherapy is the sub-optimal affinity of T-cell receptors (TCRs) for most tumor antigens. Genetically engineered TCRs that have enhanced affinity for specific tumor peptide-MHC complexes may overcome this barrier. However, this enhancement risks increasing weak TCR cross-reactivity to other antigens expressed by normal tissues, potentially leading to clinical toxicities. To reduce the risk of such adverse clinical outcomes, we have developed an extensive preclinical testing strategy, involving potency testing using 2D and 3D human cell cultures and primary tumor material, and safety testing using human primary cell and cell-line cross-reactivity screening and molecular analysis to predict peptides recognized by the affinity-enhanced TCR. Here, we describe this strategy using a developmental T-cell therapy, ADP-A2M4, which recognizes the HLA-A2-restricted MAGE-A4 peptide GVYDGREHTV. ADP-A2M4 demonstrated potent anti-tumor activity in the absence of major off-target cross-reactivity against a range of human primary cells and cell lines. Identification and characterization of peptides recognized by the affinity-enhanced TCR also revealed no cross-reactivity. These studies demonstrated that this TCR is highly potent and without major safety concerns, and as a result, this TCR is now being investigated in two clinical trials (NCT03132922, NCT04044768).

Why is PTPN22 a good candidate susceptibility gene for autoimmune disease?

The PTPN22 locus is one of the strongest risk factors outside of the major histocompatability complex that associates with autoimmune diseases. PTPN22 encodes lymphoid protein tyrosine phosphatase (Lyp) which is expressed exclusively in immune cells. A single base change in the coding region of this gene resulting in an arginine to tryptophan amino acid substitution within a polyproline binding motif associates with type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, Hashimotos thyroiditis, Graves disease, Addison's disease, Myasthenia Gravis, vitiligo, systemic sclerosis juvenile idiopathic arthritis and psoriatic arthritis. Here, we review the current understanding of the PTPN22 locus from a genetic, geographical, biochemical and functional perspective.

The long-term survival potential of mature T lymphocytes is programmed during development in the thymus.

The homeostatic maintenance of normal numbers of mature T lymphocytes in the immune system depends on signaling from the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) and the interleukin-7 receptor (IL-7R); however, it is unclear whether there is crosstalk between these two receptors. Here, we have identified a central role for TCR signaling during the development of T lymphocytes in the thymus in the determination of IL-7 function in mature T lymphocytes. We showed that Il7r expression in mature T cells was modulated by developmental TCR-dependent signals elicited during the process of positive selection in the thymus and that this mechanism was common to both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Control of Il7r expression by the TCR was limited to thymocytes because neither the abundance nor the function of IL-7Rα was affected by TCR signaling in peripheral T cells. Finally, we showed that thymocytes without optimal IL-7Rα abundance failed to form part of the pool of mature T lymphocytes that patrol the periphery of normal hosts, highlighting the importance of this mechanism in shaping the repertoire of lymphocytes that make up this population.

Abrogation of CD30 and OX40 signals prevents autoimmune disease in FoxP3-deficient mice.

Our previous studies have implicated signaling through the tumor necrosis family receptors OX40 and CD30 as critical for maintaining CD4 memory responses. We show that signals through both molecules are also required for CD4 effector-mediated autoimmune tissue damage. Under normal circumstances, male mice deficient in the forkhead transcription factor FoxP3, which lack regulatory CD4 T cells, develop lethal autoimmune disease in the first few weeks of life. However, in the combined absence of OX40 and CD30, FoxP3-deficient mice develop normally and breed successfully. The extensive tissue infiltration and organ destruction characteristic of FoxP3 disease does not appear in these mice, and their mortality is not associated with autoimmunity. Although the absence of OX40 plays the dominant role, FoxP3-deficient mice sufficient in CD30 but deficient in OX40 signals still eventually develop lethal disease. This result was supported by the observation that blocking antibodies to OX40 and CD30 ligands also abrogated disease mediated by FoxP3-deficient T cells. These observations identify OX40 and CD30 signals as essential for the development of clinically relevant CD4-dependent autoimmunity and suggest that combination therapies that abrogate these signals might be used to treat established human autoimmune diseases.

Regulation of Zap70 expression during thymocyte development enables temporal separation of CD4 and CD8 repertoire selection at different signaling thresholds.

To investigate the temporal regulation of the commitment of immature thymocytes to either the CD4(+) or the CD8(+) lineage in the thymus, we developed a transgenic mouse that expressed a tetracycline-inducible gene encoding the tyrosine kinase zeta chain-associated protein kinase of 70 kD (Zap70), which restored development in Zap70(-/-) thymocytes arrested at the preselection, CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive (DP) stage. After induction of the expression of Zap70 and the production of Zap70 protein, CD4(+) single-positive (SP) cells that expressed Zbtb7b (which encodes the CD4(+) T cell-associated transcription factor ThPOK) became abundant within 30 hours, whereas CD8(+) SP cells were not detectable until day 4. We found that mature CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells arose from phenotypically distinct subsets of DP thymocytes that developed with different kinetics and contrasting sensitivities to stimulation of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR). In wild-type mice, expression of endogenous Zap70 progressively increased during maturation of the DP subsets, and the abundance of Zap70 protein determined the sensitivity of the cells to stimulation of the TCR. This temporal gradient in the amount of Zap70 protein enabled the selection of CD4(+) and CD8(+) repertoires in separate temporal windows and at different TCR signaling thresholds, thereby facilitating discrimination of distinct positive selection signals in these lineages.

Lymphoid tissue inducer cells and the evolution of CD4 dependent high-affinity antibody responses.

Phylogeny indicates that in mammals memory CD4-dependent antibody responses evolved after monotremes split from the common ancestor of marsupial and eutherian mammals. This was strongly associated with the development of segregated B and T cell areas and the development of a linked lymph node network. The evolution of the lymphotoxin beta receptor in these higher mammals was key to the development of these new functions. Here, we argue that lymphoid tissue inducer cells played a pivotal role not only in the development of organized lymphoid structures but also in the subsequent genesis of the CD4-dependent class-switched memory antibody responses that depend on an organized infrastructure to work. In this review, we concentrate on the role of this cell type in the making of a tolerant CD4 T cell repertoire and in the sustenance of CD4 T cell responses for protective immunity.

Assessment of PAH toxicity and mutagenicity in emissions from coal and biofuel combustion.

Emissions from combustion of coal, wood and cowdung cakes in domestic cookstoves were sampled through a Stack Monitor on Glass Fibre thimbles. 16 PAH compounds were quantified in the samples extracted in dichloromethane by Gas Chromatography using FID detector. The toxic potencies of the quantified PAHs were determined by Toxicity Equivalence (TEF) Approach and their mutagenecities were tested by using Ames Plate Incorporation Method. All the 16 PAHs were determined in the emission of wood, including genotoxic compounds: carcinogens (BaA, Chy, BbF, BkF, BaP, DbA and IP) and co-carcinogens (Fla, Pyr, BghiP). In coal smoke, only 12 compounds were detected, while in cowdung cake 15 PAHs were detected except Phenanthrene. Emission factors on a fuel weight basis are highest for cowdung cake (120.23 mg/kg), followed by wood (48.97 mg/kg) and coal (28.85 mg/kg). Most of the contribution to the total PAH concentrations was from the high molecular weight compounds. Considering the genotoxic PAHs, the emission factor ranking order was from cow dung cake (115.85 mg/kg) to wood (43.03 mg/kg) and lowest for coal fuel (25.97 mg/kg). The emission factor for BaP was highest for cowdung cake (78.83 mg/kg) followed by coal (5.53 mg/kg) and wood fuel (4.47 mg/kg). Calculation of toxic potencies reveals that the carcinogenic contribution from low molecular weight PAHs is relatively much lower than high molecular weight PAHs for each tested fuel. Cow dung cake extracts did not show mutagenic activity in the Ames Salmonella test probably due to lower concentration of the direct-mutagens like Pyr, Chy. In contrast, the extracts of coal and wood had higher concentrations of direct-mutagens like Pyr, Chy, so positive results were obtained.

Mathematical modeling reveals the biological program regulating lymphopenia-induced proliferation.

Recognition of peptide-MHC by the TCR induces T lymphocytes to undergo cell division. Although recognition of foreign peptide induces a program of cellular division and differentiation by responding T cells, stimulation by self-peptide MHC complexes in lymphopenic conditions induces a slower burst of divisions that may or may not be accompanied by effector differentiation. Although both responses are triggered by signals from the TCR, it is not known whether they represent distinct programs of cell cycle control. In this study, we use a mathematical modeling approach to analyze the proliferative response of TCR transgenic F5 T cells to lymphopenia. We tested two fundamentally different models of cell division: one in which T cells are triggered into an "autopilot" deterministic burst of divisions, a model successfully used elsewhere to describe T cell responses to cognate Ag, and a second contrasting model in which cells undergo independent single stochastic divisions. Whereas the autopilot model provided a very poor description of the F5 T cell responses to lymphopenia, the model of single stochastic divisions fitted the experimental data remarkably closely. Furthermore, this model proved robust because specific predictions of cellular behavior made by this model concerning the onset, rate, and nature of division were successfully validated experimentally. Our results suggest cell division induced by lymphopenia involves a process of single stochastic divisions, which is best suited to a homeostatic rather than differentiation role.