Associations With Extubation Failure and Predictive Value of Risk Analytics Algorithms With Extubation Readiness Tests Following Congenital Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Extubation failure is associated with morbidity and mortality in children following cardiac surgery. Current extubation readiness tests (ERT) do not consider the nonrespiratory support provided by mechanical ventilation (MV) for children with congenital heart disease. We aimed to identify factors associated with extubation failure in children following cardiac surgery and assess the performance of two risk analytics algorithms for patients undergoing an ERT. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: CICU at a tertiary-care children's hospital. PATIENTS: Children receiving MV greater than 48 hours following cardiac surgery between January 1, 2017, and December 31, 2019. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Six hundred fifty encounters were analyzed with 49 occurrences (8%) of reintubation. Extubation failure occurred most frequently within 6 hours of extubation. On multivariable analysis, younger age (per each 3-mo decrease: odds ratio [OR], 1.06; 95% CI, 1.001-1.12), male sex (OR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.03-3.97), Society of Thoracic Surgery-European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery category 5 procedure (p equals to 0.005), and preoperative respiratory support (OR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.09-3.95) were independently associated with unplanned reintubation. Our institutional ERT had low sensitivity to identify patients at risk for reintubation (23.8%; 95% CI, 9.7-47.6%). The addition of the inadequate delivery of oxygen (IDO2) index to the ERT increased the sensitivity by 19.0% (95% CI, -2.5 to 40.7%; p = 0.05), but the sensitivity remained low and the accuracy of the test dropped by 8.9% (95% CI, 4.7-13.1%; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative respiratory support, younger age, and more complex operations are associated with postoperative extubation failure. IDO2 and IVCO2 provide unique cardiorespiratory monitoring parameters during ERTs but require further investigation before being used in clinical evaluation for extubation failure.

Fluid Restriction Contributes to Poor Nutritional Adequacy in Patients With Congenital Heart Disease Receiving Renal Replacement Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: Critically ill patients receiving renal replacement therapy (RRT) in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) are at high risk for inadequate nutrition delivery. The objective of this study is to evaluate barriers to adequate energy and protein delivery in critically ill patients with congenital heart disease receiving RRT. METHODS: This is a single-center retrospective cohort study of patients receiving RRT in the CICU from 2011 to 2019. Energy and protein adequacy was recorded over the first 7 days of RRT. Adequacy was defined as delivery of >80% of the energy and protein targets during this time period. Patients who achieved adequacy were compared to those who did not. Multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to determine factors independently associated with energy and protein adequacy while receiving RRT. RESULTS: Sixty patients were included for analysis. Fifty-five patients (92%) achieved energy adequacy and 37 patients (62%) achieved protein adequacy. A higher weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) on admission to the CICU was the only independent predictor of inadequate energy intake (odds ratio 0.07, 95% confidence interval 0.01-0.58, P = .014); median WAZ was -1.17 versus +1.24 for those with adequate versus inadequate energy intake, respectively. Fluid restriction to <80% of maintenance fluid at the time of RRT initiation was more likely in patients with higher WAZ. Fluid restriction was the only independent predictor of inadequate protein intake (odds ratio 0.13, 95% confidence interval 0.02-0.7, P = .018); 5% versus 30% were fluid restricted in those with adequate versus inadequate protein intake, respectively. Azotemia was not associated with inadequate protein intake. Initiation of RRT did not allow for liberalization of fluid intake over the time period evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: Protein delivery was inadequate in 38% of children undergoing RRT in the CICU. Fluid restriction was associated with inadequate protein intake and higher WAZ was associated with inadequate energy intake.

Shock Index, Coronary Perfusion Pressure, and Rate Pressure Product As Predictors of Adverse Outcome After Pediatric Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether shock index, coronary perfusion pressure, or rate pressure product in the first 24 hours after congenital heart surgery are independent predictors of subsequent clinically significant adverse outcomes. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study. SETTING: A tertiary care center. PATIENTS: All patients less than 18 years old who underwent cardiac surgery at Boston Children's Hospital between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2018. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Shock index (heart rate/systolic blood pressure), coronary perfusion pressure (diastolic blood pressure-right atrial pressure), and rate pressure product (heart rate × systolic blood pressure) were calculated every 5 seconds, and the median value for the first 24 hours of cardiac ICU admission for each was used as a predictor. The composite, primary outcome was the occurrence of any of the following adverse events in the first 7 days following cardiac ICU admission: cardiopulmonary resuscitation, extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation, mechanical circulatory support, unplanned surgery, heart transplant, or death. The association of each variable of interest with this outcome was tested in a multivariate logistic regression model. Of the 4,161 patients included, 296 (7%) met the outcome within the specified timeframe. In a multivariate regression model adjusted for age, surgical complexity, inotropic and respiratory support, and organ dysfunction, shock index greater than 1.83 was significantly associated with the primary outcome (odds ratio, 6.6; 95% CI, 4.4-10.0), and coronary perfusion pressure greater than 35 mm Hg was protective against the outcome (odds ratio, 0.5; 0.4-0.7). Rate pressure product was not found to be associated with the outcome. However, the predictive ability of the shock index and coronary perfusion pressure models were not superior to their component hemodynamic variables alone. CONCLUSIONS: Both shock index and coronary perfusion pressure may offer predictive value for adverse outcomes following cardiac surgery in children, although they are not superior to the primary hemodynamic variables.

Risk Factors for Mortality in Critically Ill Children Requiring Renal Replacement Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: There is an increased mortality risk in critically ill children who require renal replacement therapy for acute kidney injury and fluid overload. Nevertheless, renal replacement therapy is essential in managing these patients. The objective of this study was to identify risk factors for mortality in critically ill children requiring renal replacement therapy. DESIGN: Single-center, retrospective cohort analysis. SETTING: Tertiary care children's hospital. PATIENTS: All patients admitted to an ICU at Boston Children's Hospital from January 2009 to December 2017 who required any form of renal replacement therapy. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Four-hundred sixty-three patients required inpatient renal replacement therapy over the study period. Of these, there were 98 patients who had 99 unique encounters for renal replacement therapy that met eligibility criteria for analysis. The most common diagnoses were respiratory failure, stem cell transplant, and sepsis. The overall mortality was 55.6%. Nonsurvivors had a lower ICU admission weight compared with survivors (30.0 kg vs 44.0 kg; p = 0.037) and a higher degree of fluid accumulation at the time of renal replacement therapy initiation (17.1% vs 8.1%; p = 0.021). In multivariable logistic regression analysis, invasive mechanical ventilation (odds ratio, 7.22; 95% CI, 1.88-27.7), a longer duration of stage 3 acute kidney injury (odds ratio, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.02-1.15), and higher fluid balance in the 72 hours after initiating renal replacement therapy (odds ratio, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.05-1.20) were associated with an increased odds of mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Earlier renal replacement therapy initiation with respect to the development of severe acute kidney injury was associated with lower mortality in this cohort of critically ill children. Additionally, invasive mechanical ventilation at the time of renal replacement therapy initiation and a higher degree of fluid accumulation after initiating renal replacement therapy were associated with increased mortality.

RBC Exposure in Pediatric Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: Epidemiology and Factors Associated With Large Blood Transfusion Volume.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify and identify factors associated with large RBC exposure in children supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Single tertiary care children's hospital. PATIENTS: One-hundred twenty-two children supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for greater than 12 hours during January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2016. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Clinical, laboratory, and survival data were obtained from medical records. Only data from patients' first extracorporeal membrane oxygenation run were used. The primary outcome was RBC volume exposure during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (mL/kg/d). Patients with RBC exposure volume greater than 75th percentile were categorized as "high RBC use" patients. A "bleeding day" was identified if mediastinum or cannula sites were explored and/or Factor VIIa administration, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, or intracranial hemorrhages occurred. Median age was 0.3 years (interquartile range, 0-3 yr). Congenital heart disease (n = 56; 46%) was the most common diagnosis. Median RBC volume transfused during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation was 39 mL/kg/d (interquartile range, 21-66 mL/kg/d). High RBC use patients were more likely be supported by venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (100 vs 76%; p = 0.006), have congenital heart disease (68 vs 39%; p = 0.02), and experience bleeding (33 vs 11% d; p < 0.001). High RBC use patients showed a trend toward higher in-hospital mortality (58 vs 37%; p = 0.07). In the multivariable analysis, younger age (-9% per year; 95% CI, -10% to -7%; p < 0.001), more blood draws per day (+8%; 95% CI, 6-11%; p < 0.001), and higher proportion of bleeding days (+22% per 10% increase; 95% CI, 16-29%; p < 0.001) were associated with larger RBC exposure (model R = 0.66). CONCLUSIONS: Bleeding during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, frequent laboratory draws, and younger age were associated with increased RBC exposure during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Higher transfusion volume was associated with increased mortality.

Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Society 2014 Consensus Statement: Pharmacotherapies in Cardiac Critical Care Antiarrhythmics.

OBJECTIVE: Arrhythmias are a common occurrence in critically ill pediatric patients. Pharmacotherapy is a usual modality for treatment and prevention of arrhythmias in this patient population. This review will highlight particular arrhythmias in the pediatric critical care population and discuss salient points of pharmacotherapy of these arrhythmias. The mechanisms of action for the various agents, potential adverse events, place in therapy, and evidence for their use will be summarized. DATA SOURCES: The literature was searched for articles related to the topic. Expertise of the authors and a consensus of the editors were additional sources of data in the article. DATA SYNTHESIS: The author team synthesized the current pharmacology and recommendations and present them in this review. Tables were generated to summarize the state of the art evidence-based practice. CONCLUSION: Specialized knowledge as to the safe and effective use of the antiarrhythmic pharmacotherapy in the intensive care setting can lead to safe and effective rhythm management in patients with complex heart disease.

The association of carotid artery cannulation and neurologic injury in pediatric patients supported with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation*.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence of neurologic injury in a recent cohort of patients 18 years old or younger cannulated for venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. To evaluate the association of carotid artery cannulation with neurologic injury when compared with other cannulation sites. To determine if age impacts the association of carotid artery cannulation with neurologic injury. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of data from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. SETTING: Neonatal and pediatric medical/surgical and cardiac ICUs of 118 international tertiary care centers worldwide. PATIENTS: Pediatric patients 18 years old or younger cannulated for venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and reported to the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry during 2007 and 2008. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Two thousand nine hundred seventy-seven patients underwent venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during the study period. Indications for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation included pulmonary (n = 1,390, 47%), cardiac (n = 1,168, 39%), extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (n = 418, 14%), and unknown (n = 1). Arterial cannulation sites were aorta (n = 938, 32%), femoral artery (n = 118, 4%), and carotid artery (n = 1,921, 64%). Overall, 611 patients (21%) had evidence of neurologic injury defined as seizures, infarction, and/or hemorrhage. The occurrence of neurologic injury varied significantly by cannulation site: femoral artery (n = 18, 15%), aorta (n = 160, 17%), and carotid artery (n = 433, 23%); p equals 0.001. Neonates represented the largest group of patients cannulated for venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (n = 1,807, 61%), the majority of patients cannulated via the carotid artery (n = 1,276, 66%), and had the highest burden of neurologic injury (n = 398, 22%). Age, preextracorporeal membrane oxygenation high-frequency oscillatory ventilation use, preextracorporeal membrane oxygenation arterial pH and serum bicarbonate level, and preextracorporeal membrane oxygenation cardiac arrest were independently associated with neurologic injury in a covariate model. Carotid artery cannulation site was added to this adjusted model and found to independently increase odds of neurologic injury (odds ratio, 1.4 [95% CI, 1.01-1.69]). An interaction term containing age and cannulation site was not associated with neurologic injury (odds ratio, 1.06 [95% CI, 0.84-1.34]). CONCLUSIONS: Carotid artery cannulation for venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients 18 years old or younger is associated with statistically significant increased odds of neurologic injury. These increased odds are present across all age groups.

Great need, scarce resources, and choice: reflections on ethical issues following a medical mission.

Medical missions to provide cardiac surgical procedures in developing and technologically less advanced countries is a great challenge. It is also immensely gratifying, personally and professionally. Such missions typically present significant ethical dilemmas, especially making difficult choices, given limited time and resources, and the inability to help all children in need of cardiac surgery. We describe some of these issues from our perspective as visiting cardiologists.

Complex decision making in an intensive care environment: Perceived practice versus observed reality.

RATIONALE: Advancing our understanding of how decisions are made in cognitively, socially and technologically complex hospital environments may reveal opportunities to improve healthcare delivery, medical education and the experience of patients, families and clinicians. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: Explore factors impacting clinician decision making in the Boston Children's Hospital Cardiac Intensive Care Unit. METHODS: A convergent mixed methods design was used. Quantitative and qualitative data sources consisted of a faculty survey, direct observations of clinical rounds in a specific patient population identified by a clinical decision support system (CDSS) and semistructured interviews (SSIs). Deductive and inductive coding was used for qualitative data. Qualitative data were translated into images using social network analysis which illustrate the frequency and connectivity of the codes in each data set. RESULTS: A total of 25 observations of eight faculty-led interprofessional teams were performed between 12 February and 31 March 2021. Individual patient characteristics were noted by faculty in SSIs to be the most important factor in their decision making, yet ethnographic observations suggested faculty cognitive traits, team expertise and value-based decisions were more heavily weighted. The development of expertise was impacted by role modeling. Decisions were perceived to be influenced by the system and environment. CONCLUSIONS: Clinician perception of decision making was not congruent with the observed behaviours in a complicated and dynamic system. This study identifies important considerations in clinical curricula as well as the design and implementation of CDSS. Our method of using social network analysis to visualize components of decision making could be adopted to explore other complex environments.

Outcomes of transcatheter approach for initial treatment of pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum.

OBJECTIVE: To review the short and medium term outcome of transcatheter pulmonary valve perforation (PVP) in patients with pulmonary atresia-intact ventricular septum and non-right ventricular dependant coronary circulation (PA/IVS non-RVDCC). BACKGROUND: PVP in patients with PA/IVS non-RVDCC has become more common in the past two decades. However, data on outcomes with this strategy are mixed. METHODS: Data were reviewed retrospectively for all patients with PA/IVS non-RVDCC treated from 1996- 2010 at our institution. Patients who had severe neonatal Ebstein malformation, or initial interventional management at another institution were excluded. RESULTS: PVP was attempted in 30 of 50 patients (60%); 26 (87%) of these had a successful procedure. Twenty-four patients (48%) had surgery without PVP. There were no deaths in the cohort. Complications of PVP included 5 (17%) myocardial perforations. Of those with successful PVP, 10 (38%) did not have surgery (PVP-NS) and 16 (62%) had surgery (PVP-S) prior to discharge. Tricuspid valve (TV) Z-score was larger in the PVP-NS than in PVP-S patients, with median TV diameter Z-scores of +0.7 (-0.9, 1.7) and -1.1 (-2.8, 2), respectively (P = 0.01). Time from PVP to either hospital discharge (PVP-NS group) or surgery (PVP-S group) was significantly different between groups: 15 (7, 22) and 8 days (0, 46), respectively (P = 0.01). There were no differences in the number of trials or lowest arterial PaO2 off prostaglandins between groups. All patients in the PVP-NS group had a biventricular circulation at a median follow-up of 4.3 years. CONCLUSIONS: The results of a collaborative approach to treating neonates with PA/IVS non-RVDCC are excellent. Smaller TV size is associated with greater likelihood of surgery prior to discharge, and may serve as a surrogate for early RV inadequacy.

Factors associated with morbidity, mortality, and hemodynamic failure after biventricular conversion in borderline hypoplastic left hearts.

OBJECTIVE: A subset of patients with borderline hypoplastic left heart may be candidates for single to biventricular conversion, but long-term morbidity and mortality persist. Prior studies have shown conflicting results regarding the association of preoperative diastolic dysfunction and outcome, and patient selection remains challenging. METHODS: Patients with borderline hypoplastic left heart undergoing biventricular conversion from 2005 to 2017 were included. Cox regression identified preoperative factors associated with a composite outcome of time to mortality, heart transplant, takedown to single ventricle circulation, or hemodynamic failure (defined as left ventricular end-diastolic pressure >20 mm Hg, mean pulmonary artery pressure >35 mm Hg, or pulmonary vascular resistance >6 international Woods units). RESULTS: Among 43 patients, 20 (46%) met the outcome, with a median time to outcome of 5.2 years. On univariate analysis, endocardial fibroelastosis, lower left ventricular end-diastolic volume/body surface area (when <50 mL/m2), lower left ventricular stroke volume/body surface area (when <32 mL/m2), and lower left:right ventricular stroke volume ratio (when <0.7) were associated with outcome; higher preoperative left ventricular end-diastolic pressure was not. Multivariable analysis demonstrated that endocardial fibroelastosis (hazard ratio, 5.1, 95% confidence interval, 1.5-22.7, P = .033) and left ventricular stroke volume/body surface area 28 mL/m2 or less (hazard ratio, 4.3, 95% confidence interval, 1.5-12.3, P = .006) were independently associated with a higher hazard of the outcome. Approximately all patients (86%) with endocardial fibroelastosis and left ventricular stroke volume/body surface area 28 mL/m2 or less met the outcome compared with 10% of those without endocardial fibroelastosis and with higher stroke volume/body surface area. CONCLUSIONS: History of endocardial fibroelastosis and smaller left ventricular stroke volume/body surface area are independent factors associated with adverse outcomes among patients with borderline hypoplastic left heart undergoing biventricular conversion. Normal preoperative left ventricular end-diastolic pressure is insufficient to reassure against diastolic dysfunction after biventricular conversion.

A Near Real-Time Risk Analytics Algorithm Predicts Elevated Lactate Levels in Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Patients.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative pediatric congenital heart patients are predisposed to develop low-cardiac output syndrome. Serum lactate (lactic acid [LA]) is a well-defined marker of inadequate systemic oxygen delivery. OBJECTIVES: We hypothesized that a near real-time risk index calculated by a noninvasive predictive analytics algorithm predicts elevated LA in pediatric patients admitted to a cardiac ICU (CICU). DERIVATION COHORT: Ten tertiary CICUs in the United States and Pakistan. VALIDATION COHORT: Retrospective observational study performed to validate a hyperlactatemia (HLA) index using T3 platform data (Etiometry, Boston, MA) from pediatric patients less than or equal to 12 years of age admitted to CICU (n = 3,496) from January 1, 2018, to December 31, 2020. Patients lacking required data for module or LA measurements were excluded. PREDICTION MODEL: Physiologic algorithm used to calculate an HLA index that incorporates physiologic data from patients in a CICU. The algorithm uses Bayes' theorem to interpret newly acquired data in a near real-time manner given its own previous assessment of the physiologic state of the patient. RESULTS: A total of 58,168 LA measurements were obtained from 3,496 patients included in a validation dataset. HLA was defined as LA level greater than 4 mmol/L. Using receiver operating characteristic analysis and a complete dataset, the HLA index predicted HLA with high sensitivity and specificity (area under the curve 0.95). As the index value increased, the likelihood of having higher LA increased (p < 0.01). In the validation dataset, the relative risk of having LA greater than 4 mmol/L when the HLA index is less than 1 is 0.07 (95% CI: 0.06-0.08), and the relative risk of having LA less than 4 mmol/L when the HLA index greater than 99 is 0.13 (95% CI, 0.12-0.14). CONCLUSIONS: These results validate the capacity of the HLA index. This novel index can provide a noninvasive prediction of elevated LA. The HLA index showed strong positive association with elevated LA levels, potentially providing bedside clinicians with an early, noninvasive warning of impaired cardiac output and oxygen delivery. Prospective studies are required to analyze the effect of this index on clinical decision-making and outcomes in pediatric population.

Quality of life of pediatric cardiac patients who previously required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to assess quality of life of pediatric cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation survivors. We hypothesized that these patients would have decreased quality of life when compared to that of a general U.S. population sample. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Patient homes and Children's Hospital Boston. PATIENTS: Cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation survivors currently 5-18 yrs old. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Quality of life was assessed by parent proxy report using the Child Health Questionnaire Parent Form 50 and was compared to that of a general U.S. population sample and other cardiac populations. Factors associated with lower quality of life were sought. Physical summary scores for 41 cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation survivors were lower than the mean of the general population sample (42.4 ± 16.4 vs. 53.0 ± 8.8; p < .001) but similar to those of children with Fontan physiology or an automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Psychosocial summary scores in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation patients were not different from those of the general population (48.2 ± 11.8 vs. 51.2 ± 9.1; p = .11) or of other cardiac samples. Postcardiotomy extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, more noncardiac operations, total intensive care and hospital days, noncardiac medical conditions, medications, and the need for physical, occupational, or speech therapy were associated with low physical summary scores. More noncardiac operations, noncardiac medical conditions, and the need for special education, physical, occupational, or speech therapy were associated with low psychosocial summary scores. CONCLUSIONS: In pediatric cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation survivors, the physical component of health-related quality of life is lower than that of the general population but similar to that of patients with complex cardiac disease, whereas psychosocial quality of life is similar to that of the general population and of other pediatric cardiac populations.

Perioperative factors associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation after complex congenital heart surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate perioperative factors associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation in children undergoing complex cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. SETTING: A tertiary care pediatric cardiac intensive care. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: This retrospective cohort study included all patients undergoing complex cardiac surgical procedures (Risk Adjustment in Congenital Heart Surgery-1 category ≥ 3) at our institution during 2003. We defined prolonged mechanical ventilation as need for mechanical ventilation for ≥ 7 days (90th percentile of duration of mechanical ventilation for the whole cohort). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to determine independent relationships between perioperative factors and prolonged mechanical ventilation. A total of 362 patients were admitted to the cardiac intensive care unit after a cardiac surgical procedure of Risk Adjustment in Congenital Heart Surgery-1 ≥ 3 level of complexity and survived to hospital discharge. Median age was 242 days (range, 4 days-14.4 yrs), the median duration of mechanical ventilation was 1.5 days (range, 0-7 days), and 41 patients (11%) were ventilated for ≥ 7 days. Age of <30 days at surgery, higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality III score at the time of cardiac intensive care unit admission, the presence of major noncardiac structural anomalies, healthcare-associated infections, noninfectious pulmonary complications (pleural effusions and pneumothorax), and the need for reintervention were all independently associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation. CONCLUSIONS: Younger age, greater severity of illness at postoperative admission, healthcare-associated infections, noninfectious pulmonary complications, and the need for reintervention are associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation after complex cardiac surgery. Future studies and quality improvement initiatives should focus on those risk factors that are modifiable to promote early extubation in children recovering from complex congenital heart surgery.

Right ventricle and tricuspid valve function at midterm after the Fontan operation for hypoplastic left heart syndrome: impact of shunt type.

This study aimed to evaluate clinical outcomes including hemodynamics, right ventricle (RV) function, and tricuspid valve (TV) function in patients with hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) at midterm after completion of staged palliation based on the source of pulmonary blood flow provided at stage 1. The records of all patients with HLHS who completed Fontan palliation between 2001 and 2007 were retrospectively reviewed. The outcome variables were RV dysfunction, TV, and neo-atrioventricular (neo-AV) regurgitation (from latest echocardiogram), cardiac index (CI), pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), pulmonary artery pressure (PAp), and right ventricular end-diastolic pressure (RVEDp) (from latest catheterization). Clinical status was obtained from medical records and by contact with the referring cardiologist if necessary. Of 118 patients undergoing a Fontan for HLHS, 116 had a fenestrated lateral tunnel and 2 had an extracardiac conduit. At the time of stage 1 palliation, 36 patients had a right ventricle-to-pulmonary artery (RV-PA) conduit, and 82 patients had a modified Blalock-Taussig shunt (mBTS). All the patients except one who died of sepsis on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) survived the Fontan operation and were discharged home. At a mean follow-up post-Fontan period of 28.4 months (range, 0.16-95.3 months), three patients had died (2 on the transplantation list and 1 from pulmonary vein stenosis), and one patient had the Fontan circulation taken down. No patient had a heart transplantation. A follow-up echocardiogram was performed for 115 patients (after a mean of 15.6 months for RV-PA and 32.1 months for BTS), and 66 patients underwent a post-Fontan catheterization (after a mean of 15.8 months for RV-PA and 29.3 months for BTS). The hemodynamic results for RV-PA conduit versus BTS were a CI of 3.4 ± 0.8 versus 3.4 ± 1.2, a PVR of 1.8 ± 0.7 versus 1.7 ± 0.8, a PAp of 14.3 ± 3.1 versus 14.2 ± 4.5, and an RVEDp of 7.1 ± 3.3 versus 8.9 ± 5.3. No statistically significant differences were found between shunt types regarding survival or degree of RV dysfunction or in terms of neo-AV regurgitation, CI, PVR, PAp, RVEDp, or rhythm problems. Patients in the BTS group required more tricuspid valvuloplasties and had more tricuspid regurgitation at follow-up evaluation. The patients in the RV-PA group had more PA interventions. In conclusion, the contemporary results after Fontan palliation for HLHS were excellent. At the midterm follow-up evaluation, outcomes and hemodynamic data were similar between shunt types. However, the patients in the BTS group exhibited more tricuspid regurgitation, and the patients in the RV-PA group had increased pulmonary artery interventions.

Use of a Risk Analytic Algorithm to Inform Weaning From Vasoactive Medication in Patients Following Pediatric Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Advanced clinical decision support tools, such as real-time risk analytic algorithms, show promise in assisting clinicians in making more efficient and precise decisions. These algorithms, which calculate the likelihood of a given underlying physiology or future event, have predominantly been used to identify the risk of impending clinical decompensation. There may be broader clinical applications of these models. Using the inadequate delivery of oxygen index, a U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved risk analytic algorithm predicting the likelihood of low cardiac output state, the primary objective was to evaluate the association of inadequate delivery of oxygen index with success or failure of weaning vasoactive support in postoperative cardiac surgery patients. DESIGN: Multicenter retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Three pediatric cardiac ICUs at tertiary academic children's hospitals. PATIENTS: Infants and children greater than 2 kg and less than 12 years following cardiac surgery, who required vasoactive infusions for greater than 6 hours in the postoperative period. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Postoperative patients were identified who successfully weaned off initial vasoactive infusions (n = 2,645) versus those who failed vasoactive wean (required reinitiation of vasoactive, required mechanical circulatory support, renal replacement therapy, suffered cardiac arrest, or died) (n = 516). Inadequate delivery of oxygen index for final 6 hours of vasoactive wean was captured. Inadequate delivery of oxygen index was significantly elevated in patients with failed versus successful weans (inadequate delivery of oxygen index 11.6 [sd 19.0] vs 6.4 [sd 12.6]; p < 0.001). Mean 6-hour inadequate delivery of oxygen index greater than 50 had strongest association with failed vasoactive wean (adjusted odds ratio, 4.0; 95% CI, 2.5-6.6). In patients who failed wean, reinitiation of vasoactive support was associated with concomitant fall in inadequate delivery of oxygen index (11.1 [sd 18] vs 8.9 [sd 16]; p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: During the de-escalation phase of postoperative cardiac ICU management, elevation of the real-time risk analytic model, inadequate delivery of oxygen index, was associated with failure to wean off vasoactive infusions. Future studies should prospectively evaluate utility of risk analytic models as clinical decision support tools in de-escalation practices in critically ill patients.

Acute coronary artery obstruction following surgical repair of congenital heart disease.

OBJECTIVES: Acute coronary artery obstruction is a rare complication of congenital heart disease surgery but imposes a high burden of morbidity and mortality. Previous case series have described episodes in specific congenital heart lesions or surgical repairs but have not examined the complication in all-comers to congenital heart surgery. We hypothesize that shorter time from a clinically recognized postoperative sentinel event suggestive of coronary ischemia to diagnosis of coronary obstruction is associated with improved clinical outcomes. METHODS: This was a single-center, retrospective review of patients diagnosed with acute coronary artery obstruction by angiography following surgical repair of congenital heart disease between January 2000 and June 2016. RESULTS: In total, 34 patients were identified. The most common procedures associated with coronary artery obstruction were the Norwood procedure, arterial switch operation, and aortic valve repair/replacement. In total, 79% required mechanical circulatory support, 41% died, and 27% were listed for heart transplant. Patients who died or were listed for heart transplant had longer median sentinel-event-to-cardiac-catheterization time (28 [6-168] hours vs 10 [3-56] hours, P = .001), and longer median sentinel-event-to-intervention time (32 [11-350] hours vs 13 [5-59] hours, P = .003). Patients with hypoplastic left heart syndrome were at greater risk of death or transplant listing (odds ratio, 9.23, P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: Time from clinically relevant postoperative sentinel event to diagnosis of coronary artery obstruction by angiography was associated with transplant-listing-free survival. Clinicians should maintain a high index of suspicion for coronary obstruction and consider early catheterization and coronary angiography for patients in whom post-operative coronary compromise is suspected.

Factors associated with prolonged recovery after the fontan operation.

BACKGROUND: Mortality and major morbidity after the Fontan operation is low in the current era. However, factors contributing to prolonged postoperative recovery are not clearly understood. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data on all patients admitted to the cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) after a Fontan operation between June 2001 and December 2005 were retrospectively analyzed. We excluded all patients who died, required Fontan takedown, or required ECMO. The study cohort was further divided into a prolonged recovery group that included patients with >75%ile for duration of mechanical ventilation or pleural drainage, and a standard recovery group which included all other patients. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to compare demographic, anatomic, and physiological variables between the prolonged and standard recovery groups. There were 226 Fontan operations performed. Of the study population (n=218), the median age was 2.61 years (1.0 to 31.9 years) and weight was 12.45 kg (8.4 to 77.5 kg). The most common diagnosis was hypoplastic left heart syndrome (n=80, 36.7%). A systemic right atrioventricular valve was present in 139 (63.7%). The lateral tunnel fenestrated Fontan was the most common surgery (n=195, 89.4%). Within the study population, 81 (38%) patients meet criteria for prolonged recovery. Univariate risk factors for prolonged recovery included higher preoperative PVR (P=0.033), longer bypass times (P=0.009), higher postbypass lactate level (P=0.017), higher postoperative central venous (P<0.001) common atrial pressure (P=0.042), inotropic score (P<0.001), and need for greater volume resuscitation during the 24 postoperative hours (>75% for the entire group; P<0.001). In a multivariable model, need for greater volume resuscitation (OR 2.81, 95% CI 1.30, 6.05) was the only independent risk factor for prolonged outcome after the Fontan operation. CONCLUSIONS: High volume expansion in the early postoperative period is an independent risk factor for prolonged recovery. The need for high volume expansion may represent the compound effects of multiple risk factors including preoperative hemodynamics and a marked systemic inflammatory response to surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass, which in turn may mediate prolonged recovery.

Neurological injury after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation use to aid pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

OBJECTIVES: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) to aid failed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in children is associated with a high incidence of neurologic injury. We sought to identify risk factors for acute neurologic injury in children undergoing ECMO to aid CPR (E-CPR). DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study using data reported to the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. SETTING: Multi-institutional data. PATIENTS: Patients <18 years of age undergoing E-CPR during 1992-2005. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: We defined acute neurologic injury as the occurrence of brain death, brain infarction, or intracranial hemorrhage identified by ultrasound or computerized tomography imaging. Of 682 E-CPR patients, 147 (22%) patients had acute neurologic injury. Brain death occurred in 74 (11%), cerebral infarction in 45 (7%), and intracranial hemorrhage in 45 (7%). The in-hospital mortality rate in patients with acute neurologic injury was 89%. In a multivariable logistic regression model, pre-ECMO factors including cardiac disease (odds ratio [OR] 0.46 [95% confidence interval {CI} 0.28-0.76]) and pre-ECMO blood pH > or =6.865 (> or =6.865-7.120; OR 0.49 [95% CI 0.25-0.94]; pH >7.120; OR 0.47 [95% CI 0.26-0.85]) compared with pH <6.865 were associated with decreased odds of neurologic injury. During ECMO, neurologic injury was associated with ECMO complications including pulmonary hemorrhage (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.1-3.4), dialysis use (OR 2.36, 95% CI 1.4-4.0), and CPR during ECMO support (OR 2.08, 95% CI 1.6-3.8). CONCLUSIONS: Neurologic injury is a frequent complication in children undergoing E-CPR. Children with cardiac disease, less severe metabolic acidosis before ECMO, and an uncomplicated ECMO course have decreased odds of sustaining neurologic injury. Providing effective CPR and inclusion of brain protective therapies on ECMO should be considered in the future to improve neurologic outcomes for patients undergoing E-CPR.