Development of Antimicrobial Surfaces Using Diamond-like Carbon or Diamond-like Carbon-Based Coatings.

The medical device market is a high-growth sector expected to sustain an annual growth rate of over 5%, even in developed countries. Daily, numerous patients have medical devices implanted or inserted within their bodies. While medical devices have significantly improved patient outcomes, as foreign objects, their wider use can lead to an increase in device-related infections, thereby imposing a burden on healthcare systems. Multiple materials with significant societal impact have evolved over time: the 19th century was the age of iron, the 20th century was dominated by silicon, and the 21st century is often referred to as the era of carbon. In particular, the development of nanocarbon materials and their potential applications in medicine are being explored, although the scope of these applications remains limited. Technological innovations in carbon materials are remarkable, and their application in medicine is expected to advance greatly. For example, diamond-like carbon (DLC) has garnered considerable attention for the development of antimicrobial surfaces. Both DLC itself and its derivatives have been reported to exhibit anti-microbial properties. This review discusses the current state of DLC-based antimicrobial surface development.

Characterization of a novel polymeric prodrug of an antibacterial agent synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization.

Polycrystalline methacryloyl monomers of the antibacterial drug nalidixic acid with an anhydride bond to the drug carboxyl group were prepared. The physicochemical properties of the synthesized vinyl monomer were characterized using X-ray powder diffraction, thermal analysis, and polarized light microscopy measurements. Mechanochemical solid-state polymerization of the resulting monomers was carried out to yield a novel polymeric prodrug. The in vitro hydrolysis behavior of the polymeric prodrug indicated that the release rate of drug from the polymeric prodrug was clearly dependent on the pH value of the hydrolysis solution. Moreover, sustained release of the drug at an almost constant rate for more than 10 hr was shown in both neutral and alkaline solutions. The results suggest that anhydride-based polymeric prodrugs could be potentially useful in colon targeted drug delivery systems.

Kinetic analysis of mechanoradical formation during the mechanolysis of dextran and glycogen.

A detailed electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis of mechanically induced free radicals (mechanoradicals) formation of glucose-based polysaccharides, dextran (Dx) and glycogen (Gly) was performed in comparison with amylose mechanoradicals. The ESR spectra of the samples mechanically fractured at room temperature were multicomponent. The radical concentration of Dx and Gly mechanoradicals gradually decreased during vibratory milling after reaching the maximum value. Although the molecular weight of Dx or the particle diameter of Gly steeply diminished until reaching the each maximum value of radical concentration, after that the molecular weight or the particle diameter slowly decreased. These results suggested that Dx and Gly mechanoradicals might be more unstable than amylose radicals possessing an intramolecular helical structure due to the branched structure.

Development of Novel Polymeric Prodrugs Synthesized by Mechanochemical Solid-State Copolymerization of Hydroxyethylcellulose and Vinyl Monomers.

Novel polymeric prodrugs were synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state copolymerization of hydroxyethylcellulose and the methacryloyloxy derivative of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Copolymerization was about 94% complete after 4 h, and the polymeric prodrug was quantitatively obtained after 14 h of reaction. The number average molecular weight (Mn) and polydispersity (H) of the polymeric prodrug were 39000 g/mol and 6.20, respectively. Mechanical fracturing of the polymer in a stainless steel twin-shell blender improved these properties (Mn=16000 g/mol and H=1.94). 5-FU was sustainably released from the polymeric prodrugs, and the rate was not affected by the molecular weight or molecular weight distribution of the prodrug under the experimental conditions used. These results suggest that novel polymeric prodrugs composed of a polysaccharide and a synthetic polymer can be fabricated by mechanochemical solid-state copolymerization under anaerobic conditions.

Novel pH-responsive polymeric micelles prepared through self-assembly of amphiphilic block copolymer with poly-4-vinylpyridine block synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization.

We fabricated polymeric micelles containing 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) or fluorescein using the amphiphilic block copolymer, poly-4-vinylpyridine-b-6-O-methacryloyl galactopyranose. Although the polymeric micelles were stable at pH 7.4, they readily decomposed at pH 5, resulting in near complete release of 5-FU. Uptake of polymeric micelles containing fluorescein by HepG2 and HCT116 cells was also investigated. With both cell types, strong fluorescence was observed after a 12-h incubation, but the fluorescence weakened after 24 h of incubation. The fluorescein incorporated into the polymeric micelles was released into acidic organelles (endosome and/or lysosome), from which it diffused throughout the cell. The cytotoxicity of polymeric micelles containing 5-FU was evaluated against HepG2 cells using a CCK-8 assay. The results suggest that polymeric micelles containing 5-FU are more cytotoxic to HepG2 cells than free 5-FU.

Dextran-based nanoparticles with 5-FU-conjugated polymethacrylate segments for drug delivery: Synthesis of amphiphilic graft copolymers by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization and characterization.

Dextran (Dx) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polysaccharide, thus promising as a drug delivery carrier for tumor therapy. Herein, we applied mechanical energy to a high molecular weight Dx to control its molecular weight and simultaneously generate mechanoradicals. The solid-state polymerization of methacrylate- or methacrylamide derivatives initiated with Dx mechanoradicals showed polymer conversion of >95%, yielding Dx-based graft copolymers with molecular weights of approximately 30,000 g mol-1. The Dx-based graft copolymers with hydrophobic segments formed nanoparticles with a particle size of 25-35 nm in an aqueous solution. The anti-pancreatic tumor drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) was covalently conjugated onto the hydrophobic segments of the amphiphilic Dx, and the nanoparticles were also prepared. The drug release profile from 5-FU-conjugated nanoparticles corresponded well to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model applied to drug release from matrix substrates, and was also immensely predicted by the Logistic and Gompertz curves. The 5-FU-conjugated nanoparticles showed cytotoxicity against the pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines (BxPC-3) that were not significantly inferior to the 5-FU positive group. Furthermore, the fluorescein-labeled nanoparticles internalized into BxPC-3 within 6 h and actively migrated into the cytosol. These results suggest that Dx-based graft copolymers with hydrophobic segments might be used to enhance therapeutic activity.

Characterization of novel pH-sensitive polymeric micelles prepared by the self-assembly of amphiphilic block copolymer with poly-4-vinylpyridine block synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization.

We fabricated novel pH-sensitive polymeric micelles consisting of amphiphilic block copolymer containing pyridyl groups as side chains in the hydrophobic block. The number average particle diameter of the polymeric micelles at pH 7 was approximately 200 nm. A decrease in pH resulted in deformation of the polymeric micelles over a very narrow pH range (between pH 5.7 and 5.6). Interestingly, micellization and demicellization occurred reversibly in this narrow pH range. Polymeric micelles incorporating 5-fluorouracil (5FU) were also prepared. Decreasing the pH of this polymeric micelle solution from 7 to 5.5 resulted in the rapid release of 5FU at pH 5.6; the drug was completely released within 30 min. These results suggest that deformation of the polymeric micelles caused the rapid release of 5FU.

Novel application of plasma treatment for pharmaceutical and biomedical engineering.

The nature of plasma-induced surface radicals formed on a variety of organic polymers has been studied by electron spin resonance (ESR), making it possible to provide a sound basis for future experimental design of polymer surface processing using plasma treatment. On the basis of the findings from such studies, several novel bio-applications in the field of drug- and biomedical- engineering have been developed. Applications for drug engineering include the preparation of reservoir-type drug delivery system (DDS) of sustained- and delayed-release, and floating drug delivery system (FDDS) possessing gastric retention capabilities, followed by preparation of "Patient-Tailored DDS". Furthermore, the preparation of composite powders applicable to matrix-type DDS was developed by making a mechanical application to the surface radical-containing polymer powders with drug powders. In applications for biomedical engineering, the novel method to introduce the durable surface hydrophilicity and lubricity on hydrophobic biomedical polymers was developed by plasma-assisted immobilization of carboxyl group-containing polymer on the polymer substrate. The surfaces thus prepared were further used for the covalent immobilization of oligo-nucleotides (DNA) onto the polymer surfaces applicable to constructing DNA diagnosis system, and also plasma-assisted preparation of functionalized chemo-embolic agent of vinyl alcohol-sodium acrylate copolymer (PVA- PAANa).

[Radical formation by grinding of commercial tablets according to hospital and pharmacy prescription].

We examined mechanoradical formation in the grinding process of commercial tablets using electron spin resonance (ESR). Mechanoradicals were detected in all tested samples (23 types of commercial tablets) when the ball-milling of tablets was conducted under anaerobic conditions and some were fairly stable even in air. Thus the grinding may cause changes in the physicochemical properties of ingredients included in commercial tablets. Because high quality is demanded in pharmaceuticals, these results suggest more caution should be taken in the grinding of commercial tablets in hospitals and pharmacies.

[Riboflavin-radical formation by mechanochemical solid-state reaction using stainless steel vessel].

The mechanochemical reaction of free riboflavin (FR) due to vibratory ball milling was carried out in a stainless steel vessel at room temperature under anaerobic conditions. The ESR of the fractured sample showed a broad single-line spectrum. It is suggested that the solid-state single-electron transfer (SSET) reaction from the surface of the stainless steel vessel to FR proceeded during the vibratory milling, resulting in the formation of the corresponding anion radicals. When the mechanochemical reaction of FR in the presence of calcium pantothenate (PC) was carried out, the radical concentration increased with the increasing PC content. It was shown that the anion radical in the metal complex was stable for a lengthy period of time even in highly humid air.

Plasma-assisted immobilization of heparin onto low-density polyethylene surface.

In this study heparin was covalently immobilized onto LDPE-VEMAC sheet fabricated by the introduction of carboxyl groups to the surface of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) using a plasma technique. The plasma irradiation time influenced the density of carboxyl groups on the LDPE-VEMAC sheet. Heparin was immobilized on the LDPE-VEMAC sheet using a condensation reagent, N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC). We confirmed the immobilization of heparin from the ATR-FT-IR spectrum of the sheet obtained. Where heparin was directly immobilized on the LDPE-VEMAC sheet, the density of the immobilized heparin depended on that of the carboxyl groups. Heparin was also immobilized with a spacer, hexamethylene diamine, and the density of such heparin was about 1.6 times that of the directly immobilized heparin. This result suggests that the introduction of a spacer may be an effective way to increase the density of immobilized heparin.

Conventional synthesis of amphiphilic block copolymer utilized for polymeric micelle by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization.

The first example is presented here of an amiphiphilic block copolymer synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization and used to form polymeric micelles. A model amphiphilic block copolymer was synthesized first, possessing galactose as a hydrophilic side chain and theophylline as a hydrophobic side chain, by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization. The resulting copolymer had a narrow molecular weight distribution. Polymeric micelle formation was subsequently carried out with the copolymer by a dialysis method. To gain insight into the physicochemical properties of the polymeric micelle, dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements were performed. A narrow distribution of diameters was observed in the polymeric micelle solution, and these micelles were disrupted by the addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). It was also confirmed by DLS measurements that the polymeric micelles were spherical. These results suggested that the block copolymer synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization was as suitable for the preparation of polymeric micelles as materials obtained by living polymerization.

Preparation of floating drug delivery system by plasma technique.

A novel intragastric floating drug delivery system (FDDS) has been prepared by pulsed plasma-irradiation on the double-compressed tablet of 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) as a core material with outer layer composed of a 68/17/15 weight ratio of Povidone (PVP), Eudragit RL (E-RL) and NaHCO3. The plasma heat flux caused the thermal decomposition of NaHCO3 to generate carbon dioxide and the resultant gases were trapped in bulk phase of outer layer, so that the tablets turned to have a lower density than the gastric contents and remained buoyant in simulated gastric fluid for a prolonged period of time. In addition, the release of 5-FU from the tablet is sustained by occurrence of plasma-induced crosslink reaction on the outer layer of tablet and the release rate of 5-FU can be well controlled by plasma operational conditions.

Synthesis of DNA conjugate by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization and its affinity separation of oligonucleotides having single-base difference by capillary electrophoresis.

In this communication, we discuss the characterization of DNA conjugate synthesized by mechanochemical polymerization, Con-M, on the separation of model oligo-DNA and its single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) by affinity capillary electrophoresis, compared with that prepared by radical-initiated solution polymerization, Con-RL. The average molecular weight of Con-M was similar to that of Con-RL, although the molecular weight distribution of Con-M was narrower than that of Con-RL. Capillary electrophoresis of oligo-DNA was performed using the capillary filled with DNA conjugate. The resolution of the capillary filled with Con-M was apparently higher than with Con-RL. It is considered that higher resolution using the capillary filled with Con-M could be ascribed not only to the narrow molecular weight distribution but also to the difference of copolymer structure.

Synthesis of water-soluble polymeric prodrugs possessing 4-methylcatechol derivatives by mechanochemical solid-state copolymerization and nature of drug release.

In this study we synthesized the water-soluble polymeric prodrugs possessing a 4-methylcatechol (4MC) derivative as a side chain by mechanochemical solid-state copolymerization. 1-benzoyl-4-methylcatechol (Bz4MC) was selected as a model compound of 4MC, and its methacryloyl derivative (1) was synthesized. 6-O-methacryloyl-D-galactose (2) was also prepared as a water-soluble monomer. The mechanochemical solid-state copolymerization of 1 and 2 was carried out to obtain the water-soluble polymeric prodrug possessing the Bz4MC as a side chain. The mechanochemical copolymerization of 1 and 2 proceeded to completion, and the polymeric prodrug produced possessed a narrow molecular weight distribution. Three kinds of polymeric prodrugs, whose compositions were different from one another, were hydrolyzed in vitro. The hydrolysis of these polymeric prodrugs proceeded to completion. The rate constants of hydrolysis decreased with increasing the mole fraction of 1 in polymeric prodrug. It was suggested that the rate constant of hydrolysis could be controlled by the composition, the mole fraction of 1 in the polymeric prodrug.

Mechanochemical solid-state polymerization (XI): effect of water-insoluble pharmaceutical aids on drug release from mechanically synthesized polymeric prodrugs.

We discuss here the effect of water-insoluble pharmaceutical aids on the nature of drug release from composite polymeric prodrugs synthesized by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization. Magnesium stearate (Mgst) and hydrogen castor oil (HCO) were used as water-insoluble pharmaceutical aids. Composite polymeric prodrugs were synthesized by the mechanochemical solid-state polymerization of a vinyl monomer of 5-fluorouracil (I) in the presence of Mgst or HCO. The molecular weight of the resulting polymeric prodrugs increased with increasing the content of Mgst or HCO. Prodrug hydrolysis was carried out in a heterogeneous system in phosphate buffer at pH 6.8 and 37 degrees C. The rate of drug release from the composite polymeric prodrug containing Mgst (Poly-Mgst) was faster than that from polymeric prodrug containing no pharmaceutical aids (Poly-Non), while hydrolysis of the composite polymeric prodrug containing HCO (Poly-HCO) was slower than Poly-Non. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photos showed the surface of Poly-HCO was smoother than that of Poly-Non and Poly-Mgst. It was suggested that the slower drug release from Poly-HCO may be responsible for the smaller specific surface area than that of Poly-Non. It was also shown that the rate of drug release from the composite polymeric prodrugs decreases with increasing the content of Mgst or HCO. Hence, novel composite polymeric prodrugs with a variety of drug release rates can be prepared by mechanochemical solid-state polymerization in a totally dry process.

Nature of mechanoradical formation of substituted celluloses as studied by electron spin resonance.

Mechanically induced free radical (mechanoradical) formation of several substituted celluloses such as carboxylmethyl cellulose, chitin, and chitosan was studied based on electron-spin resonance (ESR) in comparison with those of plasma-induced radicals. Room temperature ESR spectra had multicomponent spectra and were different in pattern from each other. The mechanoradical concentration gradually decreased after reaching the maximum value in each substituted polysaccharide, accompanied by a decrease in molecular weight in the course of vibratory milling. One of the most intriguing facts is that the component radicals are all glucose-based radicals as in the case of plasma irradiation, although it is known that mechanoradicals are formed by 1,4-glucosidic bond cleavage of polysaccharides.

Novel and simple preparation method of matrix-type composite particles for controlled drug release by mechanical action.

Matrix-type composite particle for controlled drug release can readily be prepared through a totally dry process by simple anaerobic mechanical vibration of mechanoradical-containing ethylcellulose (EC) with theophylline powder due to occurrence of collision-induced radical-radical coupling reaction to form interparticle matrices, as well as the formation of interparticle network when solid-state vinyl monomer was further added.