ER membranes exhibit phase behavior at sites of organelle contact.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site of synthesis of secretory and membrane proteins and contacts every organelle of the cell, exchanging lipids and metabolites in a highly regulated manner. How the ER spatially segregates its numerous and diverse functions, including positioning nanoscopic contact sites with other organelles, is unclear. We demonstrate that hypotonic swelling of cells converts the ER and other membrane-bound organelles into micrometer-scale large intracellular vesicles (LICVs) that retain luminal protein content and maintain contact sites with each other through localized organelle tethers. Upon cooling, ER-derived LICVs phase-partition into microscopic domains having different lipid-ordering characteristics, which is reversible upon warming. Ordered ER lipid domains mark contact sites with ER and mitochondria, lipid droplets, endosomes, or plasma membrane, whereas disordered ER lipid domains mark contact sites with lysosomes or peroxisomes. Tethering proteins concentrate at ER-organelle contact sites, allowing time-dependent behavior of lipids and proteins to be studied at these sites. These findings demonstrate that LICVs provide a useful model system for studying the phase behavior and interactive properties of organelles in intact cells.

ER trapping reveals Golgi enzymes continually revisit the ER through a recycling pathway that controls Golgi organization.

Whether Golgi enzymes remain localized within the Golgi or constitutively cycle through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is unclear, yet is important for understanding Golgi dependence on the ER. Here, we demonstrate that the previously reported inefficient ER trapping of Golgi enzymes in a rapamycin-based assay results from an artifact involving an endogenous ER-localized 13-kD FK506 binding protein (FKBP13) competing with the FKBP12-tagged Golgi enzyme for binding to an FKBP-rapamycin binding domain (FRB)-tagged ER trap. When we express an FKBP12-tagged ER trap and FRB-tagged Golgi enzymes, conditions precluding such competition, the Golgi enzymes completely redistribute to the ER upon rapamycin treatment. A photoactivatable FRB-Golgi enzyme, highlighted only in the Golgi, likewise redistributes to the ER. These data establish Golgi enzymes constitutively cycle through the ER. Using our trapping scheme, we identify roles of rab6a and calcium-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) in Golgi enzyme recycling, and show that retrograde transport of Golgi membrane underlies Golgi dispersal during microtubule depolymerization and mitosis.

Amino acid homeostasis and chronological longevity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Understanding how non-dividing cells remain viable over long periods of time, which may be decades in humans, is of central importance in understanding mechanisms of aging and longevity. The long-term viability of non-dividing cells, known as chronological longevity, relies on cellular processes that degrade old components and replace them with new ones. Key among these processes is amino acid homeostasis. Amino acid homeostasis requires three principal functions: amino acid uptake, de novo synthesis, and recycling. Autophagy plays a key role in recycling amino acids and other metabolic building blocks, while at the same time removing damaged cellular components such as mitochondria and other organelles. Regulation of amino acid homeostasis and autophagy is accomplished by a complex web of pathways that interact because of the functional overlap at the level of recycling. It is becoming increasingly clear that amino acid homeostasis and autophagy play important roles in chronological longevity in yeast and higher organisms. Our goal in this chapter is to focus on mechanisms and pathways that link amino acid homeostasis, autophagy, and chronological longevity in yeast, and explore their relevance to aging and longevity in higher eukaryotes.

New insights into the role of mitochondria in aging: mitochondrial dynamics and more.

A decline in mitochondrial function plays a key role in the aging process and increases the incidence of age-related disorders. A deeper understanding of the intricate nature of mitochondrial dynamics, which is described as the balance between mitochondrial fusion and fission, has revealed that functional and structural alterations in mitochondrial morphology are important factors in several key pathologies associated with aging. Indeed, a recent wave of studies has demonstrated the pleiotropic role of fusion and fission proteins in numerous cellular processes, including mitochondrial metabolism, redox signaling, the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA and cell death. Additionally, mitochondrial fusion and fission, together with autophagy, have been proposed to form a quality-maintenance mechanism that facilitates the removal of damaged mitochondria from the cell, a process that is particularly important to forestall aging. Thus, dysfunctional regulation of mitochondrial dynamics might be one of the intrinsic causes of mitochondrial dysfunction, which contributes to oxidative stress and cell death during the aging process. In this Commentary, we discuss recent studies that have converged at a consensus regarding the involvement of mitochondrial dynamics in key cellular processes, and introduce a possible link between abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and aging.

SMP30-mediated synthesis of vitamin C activates the liver PPARα/FGF21 axis to regulate thermogenesis in mice.

The vitamin-C-synthesizing enzyme senescent marker protein 30 (SMP30) is a cold resistance gene in Drosophila, and vitamin C concentration increases in brown adipose tissue post-cold exposure. However, the roles of SMP30 in thermogenesis are unknown. Here, we tested the molecular mechanism of thermogenesis using wild-type (WT) and vitamin C-deficient SMP30-knockout (KO) mice. SMP30-KO mice gained more weight than WT mice without a change in food intake in response to short-term high-fat diet feeding. Indirect calorimetry and cold-challenge experiments indicated that energy expenditure is lower in SMP30-KO mice, which is associated with decreased thermogenesis in adipose tissues. Therefore, SMP30-KO mice do not lose weight during cold exposure, whereas WT mice lose weight markedly. Mechanistically, the levels of serum FGF21 were notably lower in SMP30-KO mice, and vitamin C supplementation in SMP30-KO mice recovered FGF21 expression and thermogenesis, with a marked reduction in body weight during cold exposure. Further experiments revealed that vitamin C activates PPARα to upregulate FGF21. Our findings demonstrate that SMP30-mediated synthesis of vitamin C activates the PPARα/FGF21 axis, contributing to the maintenance of thermogenesis in mice.

A lipid-based partitioning mechanism for selective incorporation of proteins into membranes of HIV particles.

Particles that bud off from the cell surface, including viruses and microvesicles, typically have a unique membrane protein composition distinct from that of the originating plasma membrane. This selective protein composition enables viruses to evade the immune response and infect other cells. But how membrane proteins sort into budding viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains unclear. Proteins could passively distribute into HIV-assembly-site membranes producing compositions resembling pre-existing plasma-membrane domains. Here, we demonstrate that proteins instead sort actively into HIV-assembly-site membranes, generating compositions enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids that undergo continuous remodelling. Proteins are recruited into and removed from the HIV assembly site through lipid-based partitioning, initiated by oligomerization of the HIV structural protein Gag. Changes in membrane curvature at the assembly site further amplify this sorting process. Thus, a lipid-based sorting mechanism, aided by increasing membrane curvature, generates the unique membrane composition of the HIV surface.

Author Correction: A lipid-based partitioning mechanism for selective incorporation of proteins into membranes of HIV particles.

In the version of this article originally published, the name of co-author Marc C. Johnson was missing the middle initial. The middle initial 'C.' has been added in the author list as well as in the 'author contributions' section (as M.C.J.). The error has been corrected in the PDF and HTML versions of the paper.

Redefining Chronic Inflammation in Aging and Age-Related Diseases: Proposal of the Senoinflammation Concept.

Age-associated chronic inflammation is characterized by unresolved and uncontrolled inflammation with multivariable low-grade, chronic and systemic responses that exacerbate the aging process and age-related chronic diseases. Currently, there are two major hypotheses related to the involvement of chronic inflammation in the aging process: molecular inflammation of aging and inflammaging. However, neither of these hypotheses satisfactorily addresses age-related chronic inflammation, considering the recent advances that have been made in inflammation research. A more comprehensive view of age-related inflammation, that has a scope beyond the conventional view, is therefore required. In this review, we discuss newly emerging data on multi-phase inflammatory networks and proinflammatory pathways as they relate to aging. We describe the age-related upregulation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling, cytokines/chemokines, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, inflammasome, and lipid accumulation. The later sections of this review present our expanded view of age-related senescent inflammation, a process we term "senoinflammation", that we propose here as a novel concept. As described in the discussion, senoinflammation provides a schema highlighting the important and ever-increasing roles of proinflammatory senescence-associated secretome, inflammasome, ER stress, TLRs, and microRNAs, which support the senoinflammation concept. It is hoped that this new concept of senoinflammation opens wider and deeper avenues for basic inflammation research and provides new insights into the anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies targeting the multiple proinflammatory pathways and mediators and mediators that underlie the pathophysiological aging process.

Molecular mechanism of PPAR in the regulation of age-related inflammation.

Evidence from many recent studies has linked uncontrolled inflammatory processes to aging and aging-related diseases. Decreased a nuclear receptor subfamily of transcription factors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) activity is closely associated with increased levels of inflammatory mediators during the aging process. The anti-inflammatory action of PPARs is substantiated by both in vitro and in vivo studies that signify the importance of PPARs as major players in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory diseases. In this review, we highlight the molecular mechanisms and roles of PPARalpha, gamma in regulation of age-related inflammation. By understanding these current findings of PPARs, we open up the possibility of developing new therapeutic agents that modulate these nuclear receptors to control various inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, vascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer.

Modulation of age-induced apoptotic signaling and cellular remodeling by exercise and calorie restriction in skeletal muscle.

Aging is inevitably associated with a progressive loss of muscle mass and strength, a condition also known as sarcopenia of aging. Although the precise mechanisms underlying this syndrome have not been completely elucidated, recent studies point toward several key cellular mechanisms that could contribute to age-associated muscle loss. Among these, mitochondrial dysfunction and deregulation of apoptotic signaling have emerged as critical players in the onset and progression of sarcopenia. Interestingly, calorie restriction, a well-known antiaging intervention, and, more recently, exercise training have been shown to beneficially affect both mitochondrial function and apoptotic signaling in skeletal muscle from young and old animals. Preliminary observations also indicate that even a small (8%) reduction in food intake may still provide protective effects against sarcopenia and cellular remodeling in aging skeletal muscle, with the advantage of being more applicable to human subjects than the traditional 30-40% restriction regimen. The most recent evidence on the relevance of skeletal muscle apoptosis to sarcopenia, as well as its modulation by calorie restriction and exercise, is reviewed.

Increased iron content and RNA oxidative damage in skeletal muscle with aging and disuse atrophy.

Muscle atrophy with aging or disuse is associated with deregulated iron homeostasis and increased oxidative stress likely inflicting damage to nucleic acids. Therefore, we investigated RNA and DNA oxidation, and iron homeostasis in gastrocnemius muscles. Disuse atrophy was induced in 6- and 32-month old male Fischer 344/Brown Norway rats by 14 days of hind limb suspension (HS). We show that RNA, but not DNA, oxidative damage increased 85% with age and 36% with HS in aged muscle. Additionally, non-heme iron levels increased 233% with aging and 83% with HS at old age, while staining for free iron was strongest in the smallest fibers. Simultaneously, the mRNA abundance of transferrin receptor-1 decreased by 80% with age and 48% with HS for young animals, while that of the hepcidin regulator hemojuvelin decreased 37% with age, but increased about 44% with disuse, indicating a dysregulation of iron homeostasis favoring increased intracellular free iron in atrophied muscles. RNA and DNA concentrations increased with age and were negatively correlated with muscle mass, whereas protein concentrations decreased with aging, indicating a preferential loss of protein compared to nucleic acids. Furthermore, xanthine oxidase activity increased with age, but not with HS, while mRNA abundance of the Y box-binding protein-1, which has been suggested to bind oxidized RNA, did not change with age or HS. These results suggest that RNA oxidation, possibly mediated by increased non-heme iron, might contribute to muscle atrophy due to disuse particularly in aged muscle.

MYC Induces a Hybrid Energetics Program Early in Cell Reprogramming.

Cell reprogramming is thought to be associated with a full metabolic switch from an oxidative- to a glycolytic-based metabolism. However, neither the dynamics nor the factors controlling this metabolic switch are fully understood. By using cellular, biochemical, protein array, metabolomic, and respirometry analyses, we found that c-MYC establishes a robust bivalent energetics program early in cell reprogramming. Cells prone to undergo reprogramming exhibit high mitochondrial membrane potential and display a hybrid metabolism. We conclude that MYC proteins orchestrate a rewiring of somatic cell metabolism early in cell reprogramming, whereby somatic cells acquire the phenotypic plasticity necessary for their transition to pluripotency in response to either intrinsic or external cues.

Evaluation of sex differences on mitochondrial bioenergetics and apoptosis in mice.

It has been postulated that the differences in longevity observed between organisms of different sexes within a species can be attributed to differences in oxidative stress. It is generally accepted that differences are due to the higher female estrogen levels. However, in some species males live the same or longer despite their lower estrogen values. Therefore, in the present study, we analyze key parameters of mitochondrial bioenergetics, oxidative stress and apoptosis in the B6 (C57Bl/6J) mouse strain. There are no differences in longevity between males and females in this mouse strain, although estrogen levels are higher in females. We did not find any differences in heart, skeletal muscle and liver mitochondrial oxygen consumption (State 3 and State 4) and ATP content between male and female mice. Moreover, mitochondrial H(2)O(2) generation and oxidative stress levels determined by cytosolic protein carbonyls and concentration of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in mitochondrial DNA were similar in both sexes. In addition, markers of apoptosis (caspase-3, caspase-9 and mono- and oligonucleosomes: the apoptosis index) were not different between male and female mice. These data show that there are no differences in mitochondrial bioenergetics, oxidative stress and apoptosis due to gender in this mouse strain according with the lack of differences in longevity. These results support the Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging, and indicate that oxidative stress generation independent of estrogen levels determines aging rate.

AMPK and vacuole-associated Atg14p orchestrate µ-lipophagy for energy production and long-term survival under glucose starvation.

Dietary restriction increases the longevity of many organisms, but the cell signaling and organellar mechanisms underlying this capability are unclear. We demonstrate that to permit long-term survival in response to sudden glucose depletion, yeast cells activate lipid-droplet (LD) consumption through micro-lipophagy (µ-lipophagy), in which fat is metabolized as an alternative energy source. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation triggered this pathway, which required Atg14p. More gradual glucose starvation, amino acid deprivation or rapamycin did not trigger µ-lipophagy and failed to provide the needed substitute energy source for long-term survival. During acute glucose restriction, activated AMPK was stabilized from degradation and interacted with Atg14p. This prompted Atg14p redistribution from ER exit sites onto liquid-ordered vacuole membrane domains, initiating µ-lipophagy. Our findings that activated AMPK and Atg14p are required to orchestrate µ-lipophagy for energy production in starved cells is relevant for studies on aging and evolutionary survival strategies of different organisms.

2-(3, 4-dihydroxybenzylidene)malononitrile as a novel anti-melanogenic compound.

Tyrosinase is a key player in ultraviolet-induced melanogenesis. Because excessive melanin accumulation in the skin can induce hyperpigmentation, the development of tyrosinase inhibitors has attracted attention in cosmetic-related fields. However, side effects including toxicity and low selectivity have limited the use of many tyrosinase inhibitors in cosmetics. We synthesized 12 novel 2-(substituted benzylidene)malononitrile derivatives and investigated their anti-melanogenic activities. Of these 12 compounds, 2-(3, 4-dihydroxy benzylidene)malononitrile (BMN11) exhibited the strongest inhibitory activity against tyrosinase (IC50 = 17.05 µM). In parallel with this, BMN11 treatment notably decreased alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced melanin accumulation in B16F10, cells without toxicity and also decreased melanin accumulation in a human skin model. As a mechanism underlying the BMN11-mediated anti-melanogenic effect, docking simulation showed that BMN11 can directly bind to tyrosinase by forming two hydrogen bonds with GLY281 and ASN260 residues, and via three hydrophobic interactions with VAL283, PHE264, and ALA286 residues in the tyrosinase binding pocket, and this likely contributes to its inhibitory effect on tyrosinase. Consistently, Lineweaver-Burk and Cornish-Bowden plots showed that BMN11 is a competitive inhibitor of tyrosinase. We concluded that BMN11 may be a novel tyrosinase inhibitor that could be used in cosmetics.

Hepatic oxidative stress during aging: effects of 8% long-term calorie restriction and lifelong exercise.

Hepatic aging may involve alterations in redox status, resulting in enhanced oxidant production and changes in specific signaling pathways that lead to a pro-inflammatory response. The authors investigated whether mild calorie restriction and long-term voluntary exercise could attenuate these changes. Four groups of male Fischer 344 rats were compared: young (6 mo), old (24 mo), old calorie restricted (8% CR, 24 mo) and old CR with daily voluntary wheel running (Exercise; 8% CR, 24 mo). Levels of endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO*), and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) were significantly higher in the old ad libitum fed group compared to the young group. Sulfhydryl (-SH) content was significantly reduced and glutathione (GSH) content tended to be lower in the old animals. Old rats had significantly increased nuclear presence of NF-kappaB and in connection, increased levels of regulatory cytosolic phosphorylated I-kappaBalpha and decreased dephosphorylated I-kappaBalpha, suggesting an increased inflammatory response. Interestingly, a significant increase in liver RNA oxidation (8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanosine) in the old ad libitum fed rats was detected and DNA oxidation (8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine) tended to be increased. The age-associated increase in oxidative stress and upregulation of pro-inflammatory proteins was attenuated in the livers from both the CR and the exercise + CR groups.

A mouse model for a partially inactive obesity-associated human MC3R variant.

We previously reported children homozygous for two MC3R sequence variants (C17A+G241A) have greater fat mass than controls. Here we show, using homozygous knock-in mouse models in which we replace murine Mc3r with wild-type human (MC3R(hWT/hWT)) and double-mutant (C17A+G241A) human (MC3R(hDM/hDM)) MC3R, that MC3R(hDM/hDM) have greater weight and fat mass, increased energy intake and feeding efficiency, but reduced length and fat-free mass compared with MC3R(hWT/hWT). MC3R(hDM/hDM) mice do not have increased adipose tissue inflammatory cell infiltration or greater expression of inflammatory markers despite their greater fat mass. Serum adiponectin levels are increased in MC3R(hDM/hDM) mice and MC3R(hDM/hDM) human subjects. MC3R(hDM/hDM) bone- and adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) differentiate into adipocytes that accumulate more triglyceride than MC3R(hWT/hWT) MSCs. MC3R(hDM/hDM) impacts nutrient partitioning to generate increased adipose tissue that appears metabolically healthy. These data confirm the importance of MC3R signalling in human metabolism and suggest a previously-unrecognized role for the MC3R in adipose tissue development.

The Role of Genome Instability in Frailty: Mitochondria versus Nucleus.

Late-life aging in humans is often associated with severe frailty. This suggests catastrophic events reaching an undeniable biological threshold in cellular stability and a rapidly diminished homeostasis. The driving force of the syndrome is likely 'genetic instability' or 'genomic instability', a high frequency of mutations and deletions within the genome (both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA) of bodily somatic cells caused by DNA damage and inefficient repair. Reactive oxygen species, calcium deregulation, and iron dyshomeostasis are potential chemical triggers of nucleic acid sequence alterations and chromosomal rearrangements. These include mutations, deletions, translocations, chromosomal inversions, and single- and double-strand DNA breaks. Nuclear damage, such as telomere shortening, also appears to cause an abnormal expression of several proteins, including p53, which leads to impaired mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, apoptosis, and other biological events. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA damage could produce inaccurate translation and synthesis of proteins important for energy production in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Another cause of genomic instability may be a reduced expression and function of DNA repair genes, especially when stressful events trigger slow responses. With late-life frailty, overall endogenous damage occurs much more frequently and repair is much less efficient, which further accelerates genomic instability.

Oxidative damage increases with reproductive energy expenditure and is reduced by food-supplementation.

A central principle in life-history theory is that reproductive effort negatively affects survival. Costs of reproduction are thought to be physiologically based, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Using female North American red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), we test the hypothesis that energetic investment in reproduction overwhelms investment in antioxidant protection, leading to oxidative damage. In support of this hypothesis we found that the highest levels of plasma protein oxidative damage in squirrels occurred during the energetically demanding period of lactation. Moreover, plasma protein oxidative damage was also elevated in squirrels that expended the most energy and had the lowest antioxidant protection. Finally, we found that squirrels that were food-supplemented during lactation and winter had increased antioxidant protection and reduced plasma protein oxidative damage providing the first experimental evidence in the wild that access to abundant resources can reduce this physiological cost.