Identification of growth regulators using cross-species network analysis in plants.

With the need to increase plant productivity, one of the challenges plant scientists are facing is to identify genes that play a role in beneficial plant traits. Moreover, even when such genes are found, it is generally not trivial to transfer this knowledge about gene function across species to identify functional orthologs. Here, we focused on the leaf to study plant growth. First, we built leaf growth transcriptional networks in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), maize (Zea mays), and aspen (Populus tremula). Next, known growth regulators, here defined as genes that when mutated or ectopically expressed alter plant growth, together with cross-species conserved networks, were used as guides to predict novel Arabidopsis growth regulators. Using an in-depth literature screening, 34 out of 100 top predicted growth regulators were confirmed to affect leaf phenotype when mutated or overexpressed and thus represent novel potential growth regulators. Globally, these growth regulators were involved in cell cycle, plant defense responses, gibberellin, auxin, and brassinosteroid signaling. Phenotypic characterization of loss-of-function lines confirmed two predicted growth regulators to be involved in leaf growth (NPF6.4 and LATE MERISTEM IDENTITY2). In conclusion, the presented network approach offers an integrative cross-species strategy to identify genes involved in plant growth and development.

The Defense Phytohormone Signaling Network Enables Rapid, High-Amplitude Transcriptional Reprogramming during Effector-Triggered Immunity.

The phytohormone network consisting of jasmonate, ethylene, PHYTOALEXIN-DEFICIENT4, and salicylic acid signaling is required for the two modes of plant immunity, pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). A previous study showed that during PTI, the transcriptional responses of over 5000 genes qualitatively depend on complex interactions between the network components. However, the role of the network in transcriptional reprogramming during ETI and whether it differs between PTI and ETI remain elusive. Here, we generated time-series RNA-sequencing data of Arabidopsis thaliana wild-type and combinatorial mutant plants deficient in components of the network upon challenge with virulent or ETI-triggering avirulent strains of the foliar bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae Resistant plants such as the wild type achieved high-amplitude transcriptional reprogramming 4 h after challenge with avirulent strains and sustained this transcriptome response. Strikingly, susceptible plants including the quadruple network mutant showed almost identical transcriptome responses to resistant plants but with several hours delay. Furthermore, gene coexpression network structure was highly conserved between the wild type and quadruple mutant. Thus, in contrast to PTI, the phytohormone network is required only for achieving high-amplitude transcriptional reprogramming within the early time window of ETI against this bacterial pathogen.

The chromatin-modifying protein HUB2 is involved in the regulation of lignin composition in xylem vessels.

PIRIN2 (PRN2) was earlier reported to suppress syringyl (S)-type lignin accumulation of xylem vessels of Arabidopsis thaliana. In the present study, we report yeast two-hybrid results supporting the interaction of PRN2 with HISTONE MONOUBIQUITINATION2 (HUB2) in Arabidopsis. HUB2 has been previously implicated in several plant developmental processes, but not in lignification. Interaction between PRN2 and HUB2 was verified by ß-galactosidase enzymatic and co-immunoprecipitation assays. HUB2 promoted the deposition of S-type lignin in the secondary cell walls of both stem and hypocotyl tissues, as analysed by pyrolysis-GC/MS. Chemical fingerprinting of individual xylem vessel cell walls by Raman and Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy supported the function of HUB2 in lignin deposition. These results, together with a genetic analysis of the hub2 prn2 double mutant, support the antagonistic function of PRN2 and HUB2 in deposition of S-type lignin. Transcriptome analyses indicated the opposite regulation of the S-type lignin biosynthetic gene FERULATE-5-HYDROXYLASE1 by PRN2 and HUB2 as the underlying mechanism. PRN2 and HUB2 promoter activities co-localized in cells neighbouring the xylem vessel elements, suggesting that the S-type lignin-promoting function of HUB2 is antagonized by PRN2 for the benefit of the guaiacyl (G)-type lignin enrichment of the neighbouring xylem vessel elements.

An AP2/ERF transcription factor ERF139 coordinates xylem cell expansion and secondary cell wall deposition.

Differentiation of xylem elements involves cell expansion, secondary cell wall (SCW) deposition and programmed cell death. Transitions between these phases require strict spatiotemporal control. The function of Populus ERF139 (Potri.013G101100) in xylem differentiation was characterized in transgenic overexpression and dominant repressor lines of ERF139 in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × tremuloides). Xylem properties, SCW chemistry and downstream targets were analyzed in both types of transgenic trees using microscopy techniques, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, pyrolysis-GC/MS, wet chemistry methods and RNA sequencing. Opposite phenotypes were observed in the secondary xylem vessel sizes and SCW chemistry in the two different types of transgenic trees, supporting the function of ERF139 in suppressing the radial expansion of vessel elements and stimulating accumulation of guaiacyl-type lignin and possibly also xylan. Comparative transcriptomics identified genes related to SCW biosynthesis (LAC5, LBD15, MYB86) and salt and drought stress-responsive genes (ANAC002, ABA1) as potential direct targets of ERF139. The phenotypes of the transgenic trees and the stem expression profiles of ERF139 potential target genes support the role of ERF139 as a transcriptional regulator of xylem cell expansion and SCW formation, possibly in response to osmotic changes of the cells.

A dominant-interfering camta3 mutation compromises primary transcriptional outputs mediated by both cell surface and intracellular immune receptors in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing proteins (NLRs) initiate pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI), respectively, each associated with the activation of an overlapping set of defence genes. The regulatory mechanism behind this convergence of PTI- and ETI-mediated defence gene induction remains elusive. We generated transgenic Arabidopsis plants that enable conditional NLR activation without pathogen infection to dissect NLR- and PRR-mediated transcriptional signals. A comparative analysis of over 40 transcriptome datasets linked calmodulin-binding transcription activators (CAMTAs) to the activation of overlapping defence genes in PTI and ETI. We used a dominant camta3 mutant (camta3-D) to assess CAMTA functions in the corresponding transcriptional regulation. Transcriptional regulation by NLRs, although highly similar to PTI responses, can be established independently of pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) perception, defence phytohormones and host cell death. Conditional expression of the N-terminal coiled-coil domain of the barley MLA (Mildew resistance locus A) NLR is sufficient to trigger similar transcriptional reprogramming as full-length NLRs. CAMTA-binding motifs are overrepresented in the 5' regulatory regions of the identified primary immune response genes, consistent with their altered expression and disease resistance responses in camta3-D plants. We propose that CAMTA-mediated transcriptional regulation defines an early convergence point in NLR- and PRR-mediated signalling.

PopulusPtERF85 Balances Xylem Cell Expansion and Secondary Cell Wall Formation in Hybrid Aspen.

Secondary growth relies on precise and specialized transcriptional networks that determine cell division, differentiation, and maturation of xylem cells. We identified a novel role for the ethylene-induced Populus Ethylene Response Factor PtERF85 (Potri.015G023200) in balancing xylem cell expansion and secondary cell wall (SCW) formation in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides). Expression of PtERF85 is high in phloem and cambium cells and during the expansion of xylem cells, while it is low in maturing xylem tissue. Extending PtERF85 expression into SCW forming zones of woody tissues through ectopic expression reduced wood density and SCW thickness of xylem fibers but increased fiber diameter. Xylem transcriptomes from the transgenic trees revealed transcriptional induction of genes involved in cell expansion, translation, and growth. The expression of genes associated with plant vascular development and the biosynthesis of SCW chemical components such as xylan and lignin, was down-regulated in the transgenic trees. Our results suggest that PtERF85 activates genes related to xylem cell expansion, while preventing transcriptional activation of genes related to SCW formation. The importance of precise spatial expression of PtERF85 during wood development together with the observed phenotypes in response to ectopic PtERF85 expression suggests that PtERF85 contributes to the transition of fiber cells from elongation to secondary cell wall deposition.

Advances and Opportunities in Single-Cell Transcriptomics for Plant Research.

Single-cell approaches are quickly changing our view on biological systems by increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of our analyses to the level of the individual cell. The field of plant biology has fully embraced single-cell transcriptomics and is rapidly expanding the portfolio of available technologies and applications. In this review, we give an overview of the main advances in plant single-cell transcriptomics over the past few years and provide the reader with an accessible guideline covering all steps, from sample preparation to data analysis. We end by offering a glimpse of how these technologies will shape and accelerate plant-specific research in the near future.

Ethylene Signaling Is Required for Fully Functional Tension Wood in Hybrid Aspen.

Tension wood (TW) in hybrid aspen trees forms on the upper side of displaced stems to generate a strain that leads to uplifting of the stem. TW is characterized by increased cambial growth, reduced vessel frequency and diameter, and the presence of gelatinous, cellulose-rich (G-)fibers with its microfibrils oriented parallel to the fiber cell axis. Knowledge remains limited about the molecular regulators required for the development of this special xylem tissue with its characteristic morphological, anatomical, and chemical features. In this study, we use transgenic, ethylene-insensitive (ETI) hybrid aspen trees together with time-lapse imaging to show that functional ethylene signaling is required for full uplifting of inclined stems. X-ray diffraction and Raman microspectroscopy of TW in ETI trees indicate that, although G-fibers form, the cellulose microfibril angle in the G-fiber S-layer is decreased, and the chemical composition of S- and G-layers is altered than in wild-type TW. The characteristic asymmetric growth and reduction of vessel density is suppressed during TW formation in ETI trees. A genome-wide transcriptome profiling reveals ethylene-dependent genes in TW, related to cell division, cell wall composition, vessel differentiation, microtubule orientation, and hormone crosstalk. Our results demonstrate that ethylene regulates transcriptional responses related to the amount of G-fiber formation and their properties (chemistry and cellulose microfibril angle) during TW formation. The quantitative and qualitative changes in G-fibers are likely to contribute to uplifting of stems that are displaced from their original position.

Ethylene-Related Gene Expression Networks in Wood Formation.

Thickening of tree stems is the result of secondary growth, accomplished by the meristematic activity of the vascular cambium. Secondary growth of the stem entails developmental cascades resulting in the formation of secondary phloem outwards and secondary xylem (i.e., wood) inwards of the stem. Signaling and transcriptional reprogramming by the phytohormone ethylene modifies cambial growth and cell differentiation, but the molecular link between ethylene and secondary growth remains unknown. We addressed this shortcoming by analyzing expression profiles and co-expression networks of ethylene pathway genes using the AspWood transcriptome database which covers all stages of secondary growth in aspen (Populus tremula) stems. ACC synthase expression suggests that the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) is synthesized during xylem expansion and xylem cell maturation. Ethylene-mediated transcriptional reprogramming occurs during all stages of secondary growth, as deduced from AspWood expression profiles of ethylene-responsive genes. A network centrality analysis of the AspWood dataset identified EIN3D and 11 ERFs as hubs. No overlap was found between the co-expressed genes of the EIN3 and ERF hubs, suggesting target diversification and hence independent roles for these transcription factor families during normal wood formation. The EIN3D hub was part of a large co-expression gene module, which contained 16 transcription factors, among them several new candidates that have not been earlier connected to wood formation and a VND-INTERACTING 2 (VNI2) homolog. We experimentally demonstrated Populus EIN3D function in ethylene signaling in Arabidopsis thaliana. The ERF hubs ERF118 and ERF119 were connected on the basis of their expression pattern and gene co-expression module composition to xylem cell expansion and secondary cell wall formation, respectively. We hereby establish data resources for ethylene-responsive genes and potential targets for EIN3D and ERF transcription factors in Populus stem tissues, which can help to understand the range of ethylene targeted biological processes during secondary growth.

Salicylic acid signal transduction: the initiation of biosynthesis, perception and transcriptional reprogramming.

The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) is a small phenolic compound that regulates diverse physiological processes, in particular plant resistance against pathogens. Understanding SA-mediated signaling has been a major focus of plant research. Pathogen-induced SA is mainly synthesized via the isochorismate pathway in chloroplasts, with ICS1 (ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE 1) being a critical enzyme. Calcium signaling regulates activities of a subset of transcription factors thereby activating nuclear ICS1 expression. The produced SA triggers extensive transcriptional reprogramming in which NPR1 (NON-EXPRESSOR of PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 1) functions as the central coactivator of TGA transcription factors. Recently, two alternative but not exclusive models for SA perception mechanisms were proposed. The first model is that NPR1 homologs, NPR3 and NPR4, perceive SA thereby regulating NPR1 protein accumulation. The second model describes that NPR1 itself perceives SA, triggering an NPR1 conformational change thereby activating SA-mediated transcription. Besides the direct SA binding, NPR1 is also regulated by SA-mediated redox changes and phosphorylation. Emerging evidence show that pathogen virulence effectors target SA signaling, further strengthening the importance of SA-mediated immunity.