RESUMO
Macrophages are activated during microbial infection to coordinate inflammatory responses and host defense. Here we find that in macrophages activated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), mitochondrial glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD2) regulates glucose oxidation to drive inflammatory responses. GPD2, a component of the glycerol phosphate shuttle, boosts glucose oxidation to fuel the production of acetyl coenzyme A, acetylation of histones and induction of genes encoding inflammatory mediators. While acute exposure to LPS drives macrophage activation, prolonged exposure to LPS triggers tolerance to LPS, where macrophages induce immunosuppression to limit the detrimental effects of sustained inflammation. The shift in the inflammatory response is modulated by GPD2, which coordinates a shutdown of oxidative metabolism; this limits the availability of acetyl coenzyme A for histone acetylation at genes encoding inflammatory mediators and thus contributes to the suppression of inflammatory responses. Therefore, GPD2 and the glycerol phosphate shuttle integrate the extent of microbial stimulation with glucose oxidation to balance the beneficial and detrimental effects of the inflammatory response.
Assuntos
Glucose/metabolismo , Glicerolfosfato Desidrogenase/metabolismo , Ativação de Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Acetilcoenzima A/biossíntese , Acetilação , Animais , Feminino , Histonas/metabolismo , Inflamação/patologia , Lipopolissacarídeos , Macrófagos/citologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , OxirreduçãoRESUMO
An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.
RESUMO
OBJECTIVE: Obesity is a major risk factor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Circulating free fatty acid levels are known to be elevated in obese individuals and, along with dietary saturated fatty acids, are known to associate with cardiovascular events. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which free fatty acids are linked to cardiovascular disease. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We found that administration of palmitate, a major saturated free fatty acid, to mice markedly aggravated neointima formation induced by carotid artery ligation and that the neointima primarily consisted of phenotypically modulated smooth muscle cells (SMCs). In cultured SMCs, palmitate-induced phenotypic modulation was characterized by downregulation of SMC differentiation markers, such as SM α-actin and SM-myosin heavy chain, and upregulation of mediators involved in inflammation and remodeling of the vessel wall, such as platelet-derived growth factor B and matrix metalloproteinases. We also found that palmitate induced the expression of proinflammatory genes via a novel toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation primary response 88/nuclear factor-κB/NADPH oxidase 1/reactive oxygen species signaling pathway: nuclear factor-κB was activated by palmitate via toll-like receptor 4 and its adapter, MyD88, and once active, it transactivated Nox1, encoding NADPH oxidase 1, a major reactive oxygen species generator in SMCs. Pharmacological inhibition and small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of the components of this signaling pathway mitigated the palmitate-induced upregulation of proinflammatory genes. More importantly, Myd88 knockout mice were resistant to palmitate-induced exacerbation of neointima formation. CONCLUSIONS: Palmitate seems to promote neointima formation by inducing inflammatory phenotypes in SMCs.
Assuntos
Lesões das Artérias Carótidas/metabolismo , Ácidos Graxos/metabolismo , Miócitos de Músculo Liso/metabolismo , Neointima/metabolismo , Obesidade/metabolismo , Palmitatos/metabolismo , Animais , Lesões das Artérias Carótidas/patologia , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Ácidos Graxos/farmacologia , Ligadura , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Fator 88 de Diferenciação Mieloide/genética , Miócitos de Músculo Liso/citologia , NADH NADPH Oxirredutases/genética , NADH NADPH Oxirredutases/metabolismo , NADPH Oxidase 1 , Neointima/induzido quimicamente , Obesidade/patologia , Palmitatos/farmacologia , Fenótipo , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais/fisiologia , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/metabolismoRESUMO
Obesity is a major risk factor for developing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD is the most common form of chronic liver disease and is closely associated with insulin resistance, ultimately leading to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, knowledge of the intracellular regulators of obesity-linked fatty liver disease remains incomplete. Here we showed that hepatic Rho-kinase 1 (ROCK1) drives obesity-induced steatosis in mice through stimulation of de novo lipogenesis. Mice lacking ROCK1 in the liver were resistant to diet-induced obesity owing to increased energy expenditure and thermogenic gene expression. Constitutive expression of hepatic ROCK1 was sufficient to promote adiposity, insulin resistance, and hepatic lipid accumulation in mice fed a high-fat diet. Correspondingly, liver-specific ROCK1 deletion prevented the development of severe hepatic steatosis and reduced hyperglycemia in obese diabetic (ob/ob) mice. Of pathophysiological significance, hepatic ROCK1 was markedly upregulated in humans with fatty liver disease and correlated with risk factors clustering around NAFLD and insulin resistance. Mechanistically, we found that hepatic ROCK1 suppresses AMPK activity and a ROCK1/AMPK pathway is necessary to mediate cannabinoid-induced lipogenesis in the liver. Furthermore, treatment with metformin, the most widely used antidiabetes drug, reduced hepatic lipid accumulation by inactivating ROCK1, resulting in activation of AMPK downstream signaling. Taken together, our findings establish a ROCK1/AMPK signaling axis that regulates de novo lipogenesis, providing a unique target for treating obesity-related metabolic disorders such as NAFLD.
Assuntos
Proteínas Quinases Ativadas por AMP/metabolismo , Lipogênese , Fígado/metabolismo , Hepatopatia Gordurosa não Alcoólica/enzimologia , Hipernutrição/enzimologia , Transdução de Sinais , Quinases Associadas a rho/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinases Ativadas por AMP/genética , Animais , Humanos , Resistência à Insulina/genética , Fígado/patologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Camundongos Obesos , Hepatopatia Gordurosa não Alcoólica/etiologia , Hepatopatia Gordurosa não Alcoólica/genética , Hepatopatia Gordurosa não Alcoólica/patologia , Obesidade/complicações , Obesidade/genética , Obesidade/metabolismo , Obesidade/patologia , Hipernutrição/complicações , Hipernutrição/genética , Hipernutrição/patologia , Quinases Associadas a rho/genéticaRESUMO
Macrophages are found in most tissues of the body, where they have tissue- and context-dependent roles in maintaining homeostasis as well as coordinating adaptive responses to various stresses. Their capacity for specialized functions is controlled by polarizing signals, which activate macrophages by upregulating transcriptional programs that encode distinct effector functions. An important conceptual advance in the field of macrophage biology, emerging from recent studies, is that macrophage activation is critically supported by metabolic shifts. Metabolic shifts fuel multiple aspects of macrophage activation, and preventing these shifts impairs appropriate activation. These findings raise the exciting possibility that macrophage functions in various contexts could be regulated by manipulating their metabolism. Here, we review the rapidly evolving field of macrophage metabolism, discussing how polarizing signals trigger metabolic shifts and how these shifts enable appropriate activation and sustain effector activities. We also discuss recent studies indicating that the mitochondria are central hubs in inflammatory macrophage activation.
RESUMO
Heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by insufficient cardiac function. In addition to abnormalities intrinsic to the heart, dysfunction of other organs and dysregulation of systemic factors greatly affect the development and consequences of heart failure. Here we show that the heart and kidneys function cooperatively in generating an adaptive response to cardiac pressure overload. In mice subjected to pressure overload in the heart, sympathetic nerve activation led to activation of renal collecting-duct (CD) epithelial cells. Cell-cell interactions among activated CD cells, tissue macrophages and endothelial cells within the kidney led to secretion of the cytokine CSF2, which in turn stimulated cardiac-resident Ly6Clo macrophages, which are essential for the myocardial adaptive response to pressure overload. The renal response to cardiac pressure overload was disrupted by renal sympathetic denervation, adrenergic ß2-receptor blockade or CD-cell-specific deficiency of the transcription factor KLF5. Moreover, we identified amphiregulin as an essential cardioprotective mediator produced by cardiac Ly6Clo macrophages. Our results demonstrate a dynamic interplay between the heart, brain and kidneys that is necessary for adaptation to cardiac stress, and they highlight the homeostatic functions of tissue macrophages and the sympathetic nervous system.
Assuntos
Adaptação Fisiológica/imunologia , Encéfalo/fisiopatologia , Insuficiência Cardíaca/fisiopatologia , Coração/fisiopatologia , Rim/fisiopatologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Miocárdio/imunologia , Sistema Nervoso Simpático/fisiopatologia , Adaptação Fisiológica/genética , Antagonistas Adrenérgicos beta , Anfirregulina/metabolismo , Animais , Aorta/cirurgia , Arginina Vasopressina/metabolismo , Western Blotting , Transplante de Medula Óssea , Encéfalo/fisiologia , Calgranulina A , Calgranulina B/farmacologia , Ecocardiografia , Células Endoteliais , Citometria de Fluxo , Técnicas de Silenciamento de Genes , Taxa de Filtração Glomerular , Fator Estimulador de Colônias de Granulócitos e Macrófagos/genética , Fator Estimulador de Colônias de Granulócitos e Macrófagos/imunologia , Coração/fisiologia , Imuno-Histoquímica , Túbulos Renais Coletores/citologia , Fatores de Transcrição Kruppel-Like/genética , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Norepinefrina/metabolismo , Norepinefrina/urina , Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase em Tempo Real , Receptores Adrenérgicos beta 1/genética , Receptores Adrenérgicos beta 2/genética , Artéria Renal/inervação , Estresse Fisiológico , Simpatectomia , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/imunologiaRESUMO
Lymphedema is a debilitating progressive condition that severely restricts quality of life and is frequently observed after cancer surgery. The mechanism underlying lymphedema development remains poorly understood, and no effective pharmacological means to prevent or alleviate the ailment is currently available. Using a mouse model of lymphedema, we show here that excessive generation of immature lymphatic vessels is essential for initial edema development and that this early process is also important for later development of lymphedema pathology. We found that CD4(+) T cells interact with macrophages to promote lymphangiogenesis, and that both lymphangiogenesis and edema were greatly reduced in macrophage-depleted mice, lymphocyte-deficient Rag2(?/?) mice or CD4(+) T-cell-deficient mice. Mechanistically, T helper type 1 and T helper type 17 cells activate lesional macrophages to produce vascular endothelial growth factor-C, which promotes lymphangiogenesis, and inhibition of this mechanism suppressed not only early lymphangiogenesis, but also later development of lymphedema. Finally, we show that atorvastatin suppresses excessive lymphangiogenesis and lymphedema by inhibiting T helper type 1 and T helper type 17 cell activation. These results demonstrate that the interaction between CD4(+) T cells and macrophages is a potential therapeutic target for prevention of lymphedema after surgery.