Characterization of Interfacial Structure in Polymer-Fullerene Bulk Heterojunctions via

We introduce a new application of solid state NMR measurements towards characterizing the donor-acceptor interfaces within bulk heterojunction (BHJ) films. Rotational echo double resonance (REDOR) is used to measure dipolar couplings between ^{13}C nuclei on the acceptor phenyl-C_{61}-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) fullerene cage, which is ≈18% isotopically enriched with ^{13}C, and beta hydrogens on the donor poly(3-hexyl thiophene) (P3HT) main chain, which are >95% isotopically enriched with ^{2}H. The ^{13}C-^{2}H dipolar couplings are used for constraining possible models of molecular packing in the amorphous mixed phase of a P3HT/PCBM BHJ. The films studied are highly mixed (>80%) and have a maximum length scale of composition nonuniformity of ≈6 nm in the mixed phase, as demonstrated by ^{1}H spin diffusion NMR and supported by TEM. The REDOR results show that despite the lack of phase separation at length scales greater than ≈6 nm, neat P3HT and PCBM clusters exist on ≈3 nm size scales, and, for the average PCBM molecule, the number of nearest neighbors P3HTs is two.

The effectiveness of a hope intervention in coping with cold pressor pain.

Hope has been correlated with greater pain tolerance and thresholds and less reported pain severity. The present study investigated the effectiveness of a brief hope-based intervention involving guided imagery and skills instruction aimed at enhancing pain coping skills among university students performing the cold pressor task. The intervention resulted in increased hope among females and increased pain tolerance in all participants. The intervention did not affect pain threshold and resulted in marginally increased pain severity. Thus, this intervention facilitates better pain tolerance without necessarily changing the experience of the pain. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

[Relationship between hope and subjective well-being: reliability and validity of the dispositional Hope Scale, Japanese version].

We conducted three studies to translate the Snyder Hope Sales into Japanese, examine reliability and validity of the Japanese version, and investigate the relationship between the tendency to be hopeful and subjective well-being. In Study 1, confirmatory factor analysis was performed of the Hope Scale in the Japanese version: agency and pathways. Its test-retest reliability coefficients for the data from 113 undergraduates ranged from .81 to .84. In Study 2, concurrent validity of the Japanese version Hope Scale was examined with the data from 550 respondents, which looked at the correlations between hope and optimism, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Results suggested that the Japanese version had high validity. In addition, the tendency to be hopeful had negative correlations with stress response, hopelessness, depressive tendency, and trait anxiety, and positive one with feeling of happiness. In Study 3, 175 undergraduates completed the Hope Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) immediately prior to final examinations. Results of regression analysis suggested that the tendency to be hopeful moderated examination anxiety. Taken together, results of the studies supported the hypothesis that hope had positive effects on subjective well-being.

Implications of self-reported cognitive and motor dysfunction in HIV-positive patients.

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined HIV-positive subjects to determine the relationship of patient complaints of cognitive and motor dysfunction to psychiatric status and performance on established cognitive and motor function tests. METHOD: HIV-positive volunteers (N = 77) were evaluated at entry into a longitudinal neurological study. Forty were asymptomatic, 29 had AIDS-related complex, and eight had AIDS. The subjects were not selected for the presence or absence of cognitive or motor complaints. Complaints of cognitive and motor dysfunction were assessed with items from the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Macro Neurologic Exam. Current depression and anxiety were assessed with the Profile of Mood States. Psychiatric status was assessed with the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule, a structured interview that provides DSM-III psychiatric diagnoses. Actual cognitive and motor performance was measured with standard neuropsychological tests known to be sensitive to the effects of HIV. RESULTS: Cognitive complaints were found in 38 (49%) of the subjects. These complaints were associated with psychiatric symptoms but not with cognitive performance. Motor complaints, found in 12 (16%) of the subjects, were associated with poorer motor performance but not with psychiatric symptoms. The overall frequency of psychiatric diagnosis was high. CONCLUSIONS: Self-reports of cognitive and motor dysfunction were common in this unselected group and are of concern to health care providers. Potentially treatable psychiatric conditions were also common, particularly in subjects with cognitive complaints, and appropriate treatment referrals are indicated. Patients who report motor dysfunction should be neurologically evaluated for treatable causes.

Peripheral neuropathy in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Incidence and relationship to other nervous system dysfunction.

A cohort of 94 patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus was evaluated clinically and electrophysiologically for the presence of peripheral neuropathy, and the results were compared with evaluations of central nervous system function. Thirty-two (34%) had some degree of peripheral neuropathy; 18 (19%) (six [12%] of the 49 asymptomatic patients, five [45%] of the 11 patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [AIDS], and seven [21%] of the 34 patients with AIDS-related complex) had neuropathy on clinical examination; and 21 (23%) (eight [16%] asymptomatic, four [36%] AIDS, and nine [26%] AIDS-related complex) had neuropathy on electrophysiologic evaluation. There was a significant correlation between the presence of neuropathy and evidence of central nervous system dysfunction.

Orthography and familiarity effects in word processing.

Both orthographic regularity and visual familiarity have been implicated as contributors to the efficiency of processing visually presented words. Our studies sought to determine which of the internal codes representing words in the nervous system are facilitated by these two variables. To do this, sets of letter strings in which orthography and familiarity were factorially combined were used as the basis for physical, phonetic, semantic, and lexical judgments. The data indicated consistent effects of orthography on the activation of all codes. These effects were seen in same-different matching and in judgments of stimulus orientation, which are based on visual codes; in judgments of pronounceability based on phonetic codes; in judgments of meaningfulness based on semantic codes; and in lexical decisions, which are based on phonetic and semantic codes together. Familiarity, on the other hand, had a clear influence on the activation of semantic codes and to a lesser extent affected phonetic codes. Despite previous positive results found in matching letter strings, however, no influence of familiarity occurred in judgments based on visual codes once evidence for criterion shifting was eliminated. Our negative results included direct tests of facilitation in matching acronyms (e.g., FBI) and in matching both regular and irregular strings familiarized by specific training. It now appears that earlier findings of visual familiarity effects may be attributed to response biases resulting from the activation of higher level codes sensitive to familiarity, and to the use of small sets of training stimuli that allowed subjects to induce orthographic-like rules. The results obtained so far with our methods seem to reconcile an inconsistent literature by showing that speeded decisions based on visual codes are most strongly influenced by rule-governed processing mechanisms sensitive to orthographic structure, whereas decisions based on phonetic and semantic codes are affected about equally by rule-governed mechanisms and by stimulus-specific mechanisms sensitive to familiarity. This conclusion may lead to changes in notions of how effective various kinds of visual training are likely to be at different stages in the acquisition of reading skill.

The role of uncertain self-esteem in self-handicapping.

In this article, the hypothesis that some individuals confronted with an intellectual evaluation use a lack of preparation as a "self-handicapping" strategy (Jones & Berglas, 1978) was studied. Sex and both level and certainty of self-esteem were examined in regard to the self-handicapping strategy of lack of effort. Subjects were 54 men and 54 women, certain and uncertain, high and low self-esteem college students, who believed that the experiment was designed to update local norms for a nonverbal test of intellectual ability. After subjects' level of state anxiety was assessed, they were instructed in the benefits of practicing for the evaluation. Subsequently, subjects' state anxiety and preparatory efforts (the primary dependent variables) were measured. Subjects' practice, self-protective attributions, and related affect supported a self-handicapping interpretation for uncertain males but not for uncertain females.

Adler's psychology (of use) today: personal history of traumatic life events as a self-handicapping strategy.

We investigated the hypothesis that the reporting of a history of traumatic life events may serve as a strategy to control attributions about performance in an evaluative setting (i.e., self-handicapping). Following from Alfred Adler's early theorization in the psychology of use, as well as more recent theory and research on self-handicapping, we predicted that individuals would emphasize the adversity of events and experiences in their background when an uncertain evaluation was expected and when a traumatic background would serve as a suitable excuse for potential failure. Results generally supported the hypothesized self-protective reporting of traumatic life events.

"Company motivates the miserable": the impact of consensus information on help seeking for psychological problems.

Based on an attribution theory analysis, it was predicted that normal individuals (people who do not evidence a particular target problem) would be least motivated to seek help for a psychological problem when they believe that the problem is actuarially common (i.e., high consensus). Based on an analysis of how target problem people evaluate their psychological problem, however, it was predicted that such individuals (unlike normal individuals) should be maximally motivated to seek help when they believe that the problem is common. To test these predictions, target problem and normal individuals (high vs. average test anxious females) were given feedback that they possessed a problem (test anxiety). Individuals were then told that their problem was either common, uncommon, or given no consensus information. As predicted, the higher consensus information led to the least help-seeking behavior for the normal individuals and to the most help-seeking behavior for the target problem individuals.

The self-serving function of hypochondriacal complaints: physical symptoms as self-handicapping strategies.

The present experiment tested the hypothesis that hypochondriacal individuals commonly use reports of physical illness and symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). Specifically, it was predicted that hypochondriacal individuals would report more recent physical illness and complaints and more current physical symptoms in an evaluative setting in which poor health could serve as an alternative explanation for poor performance than would either individuals in an evaluative setting in which poor health was precluded as an excuse or individuals in a nonevaluative setting. As predicted, results supported this self-protective pattern of complaints in a hypochondriacal sample but not in a nonhypochondriacal group. The self-protective role of hypochondriacal behavior is discussed in relation to other theory and research on the nature and treatment of hypochondriasis.

Enhancing the prediction of self-handicapping.

Levels of test anxiety, Type A and Type B coronary-prone behavior, fear of failure, and covert self-esteem were studied as predictors of self-handicapping performance attributions for college women who were placed in either a high- (N = 49) or low- (N = 49) evaluative test or task situation. We hypothesized that test anxiety. Type A or Type B level, and their interaction would account for reliable variance in the prediction of self-handicapping. However, we also theorized that underlying high fear of failure and low covert self-esteem would explain the self-handicapping claims of test-anxious and Type A subjects. The results indicated that only high levels of test anxiety and high levels of covert self-esteem were related to women's self-handicapping attributions.

Role of hope in academic and sport achievement.

Hope is the sum of goal thoughts as tapped by pathways and agency. Pathways reflect the perceived capability to produce goal routes; agency reflects the perception that one can initiate action along these pathways. Using trait and state hope scales, studies explored hope in college student athletes. In Study 1, male and female athletes were higher in trait hope than nonathletes; moreover, hope significantly predicted semester grade averages beyond cumulative grade point average and overall self-worth. In Study 2, with female cross-country athletes, trait hope predicted athletic outcomes; further, weekly state hope tended to predict athletic outcomes beyond dispositional hope, training, and self-esteem, confidence, and mood. In Study 3, with female track athletes, dispositional hope significantly predicted athletic outcomes beyond variance related to athletic abilities and affectivity; moreover, athletes had higher hope than nonathletes.

On the self-serving function of social anxiety: shyness as a self-handicapping strategy.

We tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). Specifically, we predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy persons would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than would individuals in (a) an evaluative setting in which shyness was precluded as an excuse or (b) a nonevaluative setting. Furthermore, we predicted that this self-protective pattern of symptom reporting would not occur for individuals who were not trait-socially anxious because these persons would not commonly use such symptoms as a self-handicapping strategy. Results supported these predictions for male subjects, but not for female subjects. Sex differences in the strategic use of shyness are discussed in relation to other research on sex differences in the etiology and correlates of social anxiety.

The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope.

Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.

Development and validation of the State Hope Scale.

Defining hope as a cognitive set comprising agency (belief in one's capacity to initiate and sustain actions) and pathways (belief in one's capacity to generate routes) to reach goals, the Hope Scale was developed and validated previously as a dispositional self-report measure of hope (Snyder et al., 1991). The present 4 studies were designed to develop and validate a measure of state hope. The 6-item State Hope Scale is internally consistent and reflects the theorized agency and pathways components. The relationships of the State Hope Scale to other measures demonstrate concurrent and discriminant validity; moreover, the scale is responsive to events in the lives of people as evidenced by data gathered through both correlational and causal designs. The State Hope Scale offers a brief, internally consistent, and valid self-report measure of ongoing goal-directed thinking that may be useful to researchers and applied professionals.

Legg-Perthes disease in the young hip--does it necessarily do well?

Thirty-one patients (with forty involved hips) in whom Legg-Perthes disease developed when they were less than five years old were reviewed. Previously defined roentgenographic features of prognostic significance were measured. Long-term follow-up (average, 129 months) allowed statistical testing of factors previously thought to be of significance in predicting outcome. Many of these patients were found to have poor results as measured roentgenographically. In addition, many prognostic indications were found not to be independent measures and of those demonstrating independence, none correlated with the functional outcome.

Cerebrospinal fluid analysis in human immunodeficiency virus infection.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analytes were evaluated in 59 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV+) individuals to assess neurological involvement. Glucose, total protein, cell counts, p24 antigen, CSF: serum albumin/IgG ratios, and oligoclonal bands were measured. Eighty percent of samples showed abnormalities in one or more analyte. In some patients samples, these abnormalities could mimic those of secondary opportunistic infection when none was present. The presence of oligoclonal banding in CSF (31 percent) and disturbances in CSF: serum albumin/IgG ratio (30 percent) were related to decreases in serum CD4+ lymphocytes. Disturbances in CSF: Serum albumin/IgG ratio were also related to severity of non-neurological HIV disease staging. Cerebrospinal fluid oligoclonal bands were distinct from that found in serum in the same subjects. Since immune complexes between immunoglobulins and enzymes are observed in these same patients, these oligoclonal bands may result in artifactually elevated enzyme results secondary to decreased clearance leading to erroneous clinical decisions. There was no significant relationship between any abnormalities and the presence of neurologic disease as established by a wide variety of other studies. It is important to recognize the limits of CSF interpretation in this patient group.

Coping with terminal illness: the role of hopeful thinking.

Using Snyder's theory of hope, the role of hope in the process of dying from a terminal illness is discussed. In this theory, hope is defined as the perceived capability to produce workable routes to desired goals (pathways thinking) and the requisite motivation to use those routes (agency thinking). Strategies by which individuals can maintain and even increase hope during the dying process are described, along with interventions to maintain patients' hope. Directions for future research are suggested.

Alcoholism among the Jews in Israel: a pilot study. I. Research rationale and a look at the ethnic factor.

There is a marked difference in the extent of alcoholism and related problems among Israeli Jews of the three major ethnic communities--Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Oriental (in ascending order)--which may be explained sociologically in terms of historic differentiation of Jewish minorities from the drinking norms of surrounding majorities, liturgical differences prior to immigration, and differentials in the social stresses of post-immigration adaptation to life in modern Israel.

Reality negotiation in non-depressed and depressed persons.

OBJECTIVES: Non-depressed and depressed persons were hypothesized to input and recall self-referential information that was consistent with their self theories. DESIGN: Non-depressed and depressed persons were compared. METHODS: Non-depressed (14) and depressed (14) students chose between positive or negative audio statements, and then recalled the statements. RESULTS: Non-depressed relative to depressed participants: (i) listened more to the positive than the negative tapes; and (ii) fabricated (i.e. incorrectly recalled) less negative messages. CONCLUSION: Partial support is given to reality negotiation processes.