Enzyme Encapsulation in a Porous Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Framework.

Protection of biological assemblies is critical to applications in biotechnology, increasing the durability of enzymes in biocatalysis or potentially stabilizing biotherapeutics during transport and use. Here we show that a porous hydrogen-bonded organic framework (HOF) constructed from water-soluble tetra-amidinium (1·Cl4) and tetracarboxylate (2) building blocks can encapsulate and stabilize biomolecules to elevated temperature, proteolytic and denaturing agents, and extend the operable pH range for catalase activity. The HOF, which readily retains water within its framework structure, can also protect and retain the activity of enzymes such as alcohol oxidase, that are inactive when encapsulated within zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF) materials. Such HOF coatings could provide valid alternative materials to ZIFs: they are metal free, possess larger pore apertures, and are stable over a wider, more biologically relevant pH range.

Enhanced Activity of Enzymes Encapsulated in Hydrophilic Metal-Organic Frameworks.

Encapsulation of biomacromolecules in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) can preserve biological functionality in harsh environments. Despite the success of this approach, termed biomimietic mineralization, limited consideration has been given to the chemistry of the MOF coating. Here, we show that enzymes encapsulated within hydrophilic MAF-7 or ZIF-90 retain enzymatic activity upon encapsulation and when exposed to high temperatures, denaturing or proteolytic agents, and organic solvents, whereas hydrophobic ZIF-8 affords inactive catalase and negligible protection to urease.

Tunable Polymer Nanoreactors from RAFT Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly: Fabrication of Nanostructured Carbon-Coated Anatase as Battery Anode Materials with Variable Morphology and Porosity.

We demonstrate a modular synthesis approach to yield mesoporous carbon-coated anatase (denoted as TiO2/C) nanostructures. Combining polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) dispersion polymerization enabled the fabrication of uniform core-shell polymeric nanoreactors with tunable morphologies. The nanoreactors comprised of a poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) shell and a poly(benzyl methacrylate) (PBzMA) core. We selected worm-like and vesicular morphologies to guide the nanostructuring of a TiO2 precursor, namely, titanium(IV) bis(ammonium lactato)dihydroxide (TALH). Subsequent carbonization yielded nanocrystalline anatase and simultaneously introduced a porous carbon framework, which also suppressed the crystal growth (∼5 nm crystallites). The as-prepared TiO2/C materials comprised of a porous structure, with large specific surface areas (>85 m2/g) and various carbon contents (20-30 wt %). As anode components in lithium-ion batteries, our TiO2/C nanomaterials improved the cycling stability, facilitated high overall capacities, and minimized the capacity loss compared to both their sans carbon and commercial anatase analogues.

3D Printing of Monoliths Using TIFSIX-Ni-Based Formulations for the Electric Swing Adsorption of CO2.

The hybrid ultraporous material TIFSIX-Ni ([Ni(pyrazine)2(TiF6)]n) was incorporated into a composite ink for the first time for the three-dimensional (3D) printing of monoliths. The large-scale synthesis of TIFSIX-Ni was completed using two different Ni(II) salts, with CO2 uptakes of 1.90 mmol g-1 achieved using mechanochemically assisted thermal synthesis. The monoliths were then tested for the capture and release of CO2 gas using electric swing adsorption (ESA) under dry and humid conditions. A working capacity of 1.7% was achieved (comparing dynamic data with isotherm data) when a current of 2.1 A was applied for 10 min. The monolith could be cycled repeatedly for 6 h without impacting the performance of the material or loss of capacity. Part of this work explored the improvement of mechanochemically assisted synthetic methods of TIFISX-Ni in reducing the costs associated with large-scale production, allowing for improvements in the overall scale-up and processability of the material for industrial applications.

Passivation-Free, Liquid-Metal-Based Electrosynthesis of Aluminum Metal-Organic Frameworks Mediated by Light Metal Activation.

The production of aluminum (Al) metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) by electrosynthesis using solid-state Al electrodes always faces significant challenges due to the formation of a passivating aluminum oxide layer in the process. Here, we developed a liquid-metal-based method to electrosynthesize an aluminum Al-MOF (MIL-53). This method uses a liquid-state gallium (Ga) anode as a reservoir and activator for a light metal, Al, in the form of Al-Ga alloys that releases Al3+ for the electrosynthesis of Al-MOFs. Introducing Ga into the system inhibits the formation of aluminum oxide passivation layer and promotes the electrochemical reaction for Al-MOF synthesis. The electrosynthesis using liquid Al-Ga alloy is conducted at ambient temperatures for long durations without requiring pretreatment for aluminum oxide removal. We show that the Al-MOF products synthesized from 0.40 wt % Al in liquid Ga lead to the highest crystallinity and possess a specific surface area greater than 800 m2 g-1 and a low capacity for CO2 adsorption that can be used as a potential matrix for CO2/N2 separation. This work provides evidence that employing liquid-metal electrodes offers a viable pathway to circumvent surface passivation effects that inevitably occur when using conventional solid metals. It also introduces an efficient electrosynthesis method based on liquid metals for producing atomically porous materials.

Multi-layered ZIF-coated cells for the release of bioactive molecules in hostile environments.

Metal-organic framework (MOF) coatings on cells enhance viability in cytotoxic environments. Here, we show how protective multi-layered MOF bio-composite shells on a model cell system (yeast) enhance the proliferation of living cells exposed to hostile protease-rich environments via the dissolution of the shells and release of a protease inhibitor (antitrypsin).

A cofacial metal-organic framework based photocathode for carbon dioxide reduction.

Innovative and robust photosensitisation materials play a cardinal role in advancing the combined effort towards efficient solar energy harvesting. Here, we demonstrate the photocathode functionality of a Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) featuring cofacial pairs of photo- and electro-active 1,4,5,8-naphthalenediimide (NDI) ligands, which was successfully applied to markedly reduce the overpotential required for CO2 reduction to CO by a well-known rhenium molecular electrocatalyst. Reduction of [Cd(DPNDI)(TDC)] n (DPNDI = N,N'-di(4-pyridyl)-1,4,5,8-naphthalenediimide, H2TDC = thiophene-2,5-dicarboxylic acid) to its mixed-valence state induces through-space Intervalence Charge Transfer (IVCT) within cofacial DPNDI units. Irradiation of the mixed-valence MOF in the visible region generates a DPNDI photoexcited radical monoanion state, which is stabilised as a persistent species by the inherent IVCT interactions and has been rationalised using Density Functional Theory (DFT). This photoexcited radical monoanion state was able to undergo charge transfer (CT) reduction of the rhenium molecular electrocatalyst to effect CO generation at a lower overpotential than that required by the discrete electrocatalyst itself. The exploitation of cofacial MOFs opens new directions for the design philosophy behind light harvesting materials.

The electrochemical reduction of a flexible Mn(II) salen-based metal-organic framework.

A new metal-organic framework (MOF) containing a Mn(II) salen complex (BET surface area = 967 ± 6 m2 g-1) undergoes a reversible crystalline-to-amorphous transformation. Experimental studies and computational calculations show that the MOF is stable to a one-electron reduction at more anodic potentials than the corresponding discrete complex.

The spectroelectrochemical behaviour of redox-active manganese salen complexes.

Salens are well-known for their ability to catalyse electrochemical transformations; however, despite their rich history, the fundamental reduction chemistry of these systems remains relatively unexplored. This work reports the design and synthesis of eight discrete, functionalised Mn(iii) pyridyl salen metal complexes, in which the diamine is varied. The electrochemical properties of the complexes were examined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), spectroelectrochemical (SEC) techniques and Density Functional Theory (DFT) computational modelling to explore the mechanisms that underly Mn salen reduction chemistry. We briefly examine the electrochemistry of these complexes in the presence of CO2. These complexes represent potential ligands for incorporation into both discrete and extended metallosupramolecular assemblies.

Electroactive Co(iii) salen metal complexes and the electrophoretic deposition of their porous organic polymers onto glassy carbon.

This paper reports the CO2 electroreduction properties of three bis-bromo Co(iii) salen metal complexes and their Porous Organic Polymers (POPs) as a platform for using the salen core as a multi-electron reducing agent. Although Co(iii) salen metal complexes have been studied extensively for their chemical catalysis with CO2, their electrochemical behaviour, particularly their reduction, in the presence of CO2 is much less explored. The discrete Co(iii) complexes enabled the reduction of CO2 to CO in faradaic efficiencies of up to 20%. The reductive electrochemical processes of Co(iii) salen complexes are relatively unknown; therefore, the mechanism of reduction for the complexes was investigated using IR and UV-Vis-NIR spectroelectrochemical (SEC) techniques. The discrete bis-bromo salen complexes were incorporated into POPs with tris-(p-ethynyl)-triphenylamine as a co-ligand and were characterised using solid state NMR, IR, UV-Vis-NIR and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM). The POP materials were electrophoretically deposited onto glassy carbon under milder conditions than those previously reported in the literature. Direct attachment of the POP materials to glassy carbon enabled improved solid state electrochemical analysis of the samples. The POP materials were also analysed via SEC techniques, where a Co(ii/i) process could be observed, but further reductions associated with the imine reduction compromised the stability of the POPs.