Health impact assessment of PM2.5 from uncovered coal trains in the San Francisco Bay Area: Implications for global exposures.

Coal generates almost 40% of the world's electricity with 80 countries throughout the world using coal power. An inherent part of this generation is the rail transport of coal in uncovered cars, often up to a mile long. Existing studies document the subsequent increments of PM2.5 to the near-rail populations, which typically include a large number of economically disadvantaged residents and/or people of color. However, to date there is no assessment of the health implications of this stage in the use of coal. The present study quantifies such impacts on a region in the San Francisco Bay Area. The analysis shows important effects on mortality, hospitalization for cardiovascular and respiratory disease, asthma exacerbation, work loss, and days of restricted activity. Several of these outcomes exhibited a one to six percent increase over baseline. As such, it delineates the implications for the global effects of the transport of coal.

Decreasing Vanadium Footprint of Bunker Fuel Emissions.

The Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network measures the chemical composition of atmospheric particulate matter at over 160 locations throughout the United States. As part of the routine quality control process, we noted decreases in the network-wide vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni) concentrations in 2015 relative to the previous years. Enriched V and Ni with respect to soil are indicative of heavy fuel oil burning and are often used as tracers for emissions from marine vessels. Multiple regulations on the fuel used by marine vessels were implemented in North America since 2010, and the most sweeping regulation was implemented at the start of 2015. The 2015 regulations reduced the allowable fuel oil sulfur concentrations within the North America Emissions Control Area from 1.0% to 0.1% to reduce the environmental and human health impacts of sulfates. As a side effect, these requirements economically favored fuels with lower V and Ni concentrations. The atmospheric concentrations of V and Ni decreased markedly at many IMPROVE monitoring sites, particularly sites near major ports. Between 2011 and 2015, annual mean V concentrations measured on IMPROVE samples collected near the ports of Seattle, Washington and New Orleans, Louisiana decreased by 35% and 85%, respectively. These decreases have brought the coastal V and Ni concentrations much closer to those measured far inland.

Elemental characterization of PM2.5 and PM10 emitted from light duty vehicles in the Washburn Tunnel of Houston, Texas: release of rhodium, palladium, and platinum.

We report the elemental composition, including Rh, Pd, and Pt, of total (i.e., tailpipe and nontailpipe) PM2.5 and PM10 emissions from predominantly gasoline-driven light-duty vehicles (LDVs) traversing the Washburn Tunnel in Houston, Texas during November and December, 2012. Using a novel sample preparation and dynamic reaction cell-quadrupole-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry technique, we quantify the emission of numerous representative, transition, and lanthanoid elements. Two sets of time integrated PM samples were collected over 3-4week duration both inside the tunnel as well as from the tunnel ventilation air supply to derive accurate LDV source profiles incorporating three platinum group elements (PGEs) for the first time. Average Rh, Pd, and Pt concentrations from the tunnel ventilation air supply were 1.5, 11.1, and 4.5pgm(-3) in PM2.5 and 3.8, 23.1, and 15.1pgm(-3) in PM10, respectively. Rh, Pd, and Pt levels were elevated inside the Washburn Tunnel reaching 12.5, 91.1, and 30.1pgm(-3) in PM2.5 and 36.3, 214, and 61.1pgm(-3) in PM10, respectively. Significantly higher enrichment factors of Cu, Zr, Rh, Pd, Sb, and Pt (referenced to Ti in the upper continental crust) inside the tunnel compared with the ventilation air supply suggested that they are unique elemental tracers of PM derived from gasoline-driven LDVs. This highlights the importance of advancing methods to quantify the trace level PGE emissions as a technique to more accurately estimate LDVs' contributions to airborne PM. Using the emission profile based on PGEs and ambient quantification, mass balancing revealed that approximately half the fine PM mass in the tunnel could be attributed to tailpipe emissions, approximately one-quarter to road dust, with smaller contributions from brake (7%) and tire (3%) wear. On the other hand, PM10 mostly originated from resuspended road dust (∼50%), with progressively lower contributions from tailpipe emissions (14%), brake wear (9%), and tire wear (2%).

The impact of coal trains on PM2.5 in the San Francisco Bay area.

Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is associated with adverse health effects, including mortality, even at low concentrations. Rail conveyance of coal, accounting for one-third of American rail freight tonnage, is a source of PM2.5. However, there are limited studies of its contribution to PM2.5, especially in urban settings where residents experience higher exposure and vulnerability to air pollution. We developed a novel artificial intelligence-driven monitoring system to quantify average and maximum PM2.5 concentrations of full and empty (unloaded) coal trains compared to freight and passenger trains. The monitor was close to the train tracks in Richmond, California, a city with a racially diverse population of 115,000 and high rates of asthma and heart disease. We used multiple linear regression models controlling for diurnal patterns and meteorology. The results indicate coal trains add on average 8.32 µg/m3 (95% CI = 6.37, 10.28; p < 0.01) to ambient PM2.5, while sensitivity analysis produced midpoints ranging from 5 to 12 µg/m3. Coal trains contributed 2 to 3 µg/m3 more of PM2.5 than freight trains, and 7 µg/m3 more under calm wind conditions, suggesting our study underestimates emissions and subsequent concentrations of coal train dust. Empty coal cars tended to add 2 µg/m3. Regarding peak concentrations of PM2.5, our models suggest an increase of 17.4 µg/m3 (95% CI = 6.2, 28.5; p < 0.01) from coal trains, about 3 µg/m3 more than freight trains. Given rail shipment of coal occurs globally, including in populous areas, it is likely to have adverse effects on health and environmental justice.

Evaluating IMPROVE PM2.5 element measurements.

The Interagency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network has collected airborne particulate matter (PM) samples at locations throughout the United States since 1988 and provided chemical speciation measurements on the samples using several techniques including X-ray fluorescence (XRF). New XRF instruments for measuring PM elemental content of IMPROVE samples were introduced in 2011. To evaluate the performance of these new instruments relative to the old instruments, archived sample from three IMPROVE monitoring sites were retrieved and analyzed on the new instruments. The agreement between the two instruments varied by element. Comparisons of the results were very good (slopes within 10% of unity) for most elements regularly measured well above the detection limits (sulfur, chlorine, potassium, titanium, vanadium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, selenium, lead). Different particle compositions at the three sites highlighted different measurement interferences. High sea salt concentrations at the coastal site emphasized corrections applied in the old systems to light elements - sodium and magnesium - and resulted in poor agreement for these elements. Comparisons of the XRF measurements with collocated sulfate measurements by ion chromatography suggest that sulfur measurements from the new instruments are more precise but slight underestimates. Comparing elemental ratios to expected ratios for soil-derived PM demonstrate the new instruments are better at resolving the aluminum and silicon peaks.Implications: The presented work represents a comprehensive analysis of the method change enacted within the Interagency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) air monitoring network. This work describes the implications of the last change in elemental quantification methodology. The most important point for data users performing longitudinal analyses is that light elements (e.g., sodium - sulfur) were affected; the old instrumentation overestimated these elements while the current measurements are slightly underestimated. The authors recommend these results to be taken into consideration when interpreting sea salt and crustal sources of atmospheric dust.

Evaluating PM2.5 element concentration measurements for a nationwide monitoring network.

Particulate matter (PM) concentrations have decreased dramatically over the past 20 years, thus lower method detection limits (MDL) are required for these measurements. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy is used to quantify multiple elements simultaneously in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Chemical Speciation Network (CSN). Inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is an alternative analysis with lower MDL for elements. Here, we present a side-by-side comparison of XRF and ICP-MS for elements in PM2.5 samples collected via the EPA's CSN. For ICP-MS, a simple extraction and ICP-MS analysis technique was applied to a wide variety of samples to minimize effort and cost and serve as a feasibility test for a large monitoring network. Filter samples (N = 549) from various urban locations across the US were analyzed first analyzed via XRF at UC Davis and then ICP-MS at RTI International. Both methods measured 29 of the same elements out of the 33 usually reported to CSN. Of these 29, 14 elements (Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb) were found to be frequently detected (i.e. had more than 10% of values above both XRF and ICP-MS MDL). ICP-MS was found to have lower MDL for 26 out of 29 elements, namely Na, Mg, Al, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Zr, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Cs, Ba, Ce, Pb; conversely, XRF had lower MDL for 3 elements, namely, P, K, Zn. Intra-method quality checks using (1) inter-elemental inspection of scatter plots using a priori knowledge of element sources and (2) scatter plots of routine versus collocated measurements reveal that ICP-MS exhibits better measurement precision. Lower detection limits for element measurements in nationwide PM monitoring networks would benefit human-health and source apportionment research.Implications: We demonstrate that ICP-MS with adilute-acid digestion method would significantly improve the element detection rates and thus be avaluable addition to the current analysis techniques for airborne PM samples in anationwide monitoring network. In this paper, we show that a hybrid method of elemental analysis for airborne particulate matter (PM) would significantly improve the detection rates for elements in PM. This would be a valuable addition to the current analysis techniques for airborne PM samples in nationwide and other large-scale monitoring networks, such as the EPA's Chemical Speciation Network (CSN). The techniques explored in this study (i.e., X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy or XRF and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MS) are relevant to the PM monitoring and regulatory community audience of JAWMA, especially agencies and states that are already involved in CSN. In addition, our results outline considerations that give insight on factors to consider for other large-scale and long-term ambient air monitoring efforts.

Fugitive gypsum dust deposition on a neighboring wildlife refuge, Antioch Dunes, California, USA.

Fugitive dust emissions play an important role in urban air quality. Much research on fugitive dust's effects has focused on human health and societal impacts, with limited work investigating effects on other species. The endangered Apodemia mormo langei butterfly is endemic to the Antioch Dunes, a small area on the south bank of the San Joaquin River in northern California, largely protected as a National Wildlife Refuge. Between the two protected portions of the dunes is a gypsum processing facility. Deposition of gypsum dust may adversely affect endangered insects, especially in their vulnerable larval life stage. Persistent westerly winds blow from the western section of the refuge, across the industrial facility, to the eastern protected dune area. Ambient particulate matter (PM) was collected at 30 sites in both sections of the refuge using passive samplers deployed at times matching the butterfly life cycle. The prevailing wind maintained upwind-downwind sampling orientation throughout the study. PM samples were analyzed for total mass, and elemental composition via X-ray fluorescence. Downwind concentrations of gypsum-related elements were between 4 (strontium) and 12 (sulfur) times higher than upwind loadings, suggesting deposition of PM from the gypsum facility. The effect of fugitive emissions was strongest at the industrial facility's fenceline, closest to a conveyor belt that loads gypsum. Combined with documented reductions in insect larval longevity when exposed to gypsum dust, the results suggest that gypsum deposition may be affecting the ecosystem and endangered species in the downwind unit of the Antioch Dunes National Wildlife Refuge.Implications: Fugitive dust has impacts not only on humans, but on other organisms. The Antioch Dunes National Wildlife Refuge (ADNWR) in California, set aside to protect the endangered Apodemia mormo langei butterfly, consists of two land units separated by a gypsum processing facility in between them. In this study, we demonstrate fugitive gypsum dust deposition on the downwind unit of the ADNWR, which may impact the endangered butterfly and its ecosystem.

Geographic disparities persist despite decline in mortality from IHD in California's Central Valley 1999-2014.

BACKGROUND: Nationally, ischemic heart disease mortality has declined significantly due to advancements in managing traditional risk factors of hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, smoking, and obesity and acute intervention. However geographic disparities persist that may, in part, be attributed to environmental effects. METHODS: Ischemic heart disease age-adjusted mortality were obtained from the CDC database for years 1999 through 2014 by county, gender, race, and Hispanic origin for the Central Valley of California. RESULTS: There was an increase in mortality from north to south of 14.9 (95% CI: 8.0-21.9, p value <0.0001) in time period 1, 7.9 (95% CI: 0.8-15, p value <0.05) in time period 2, and 9.2 (95% CI: 4.0-14.3, p value <0.001) in time period 3. In time period 1, the ambient particulate matter ≤2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) level increased from north to south by 0.84 µg/m³ (95% CI: 0.71-0.96), in time period 2 there was a 0.87 µg/m³ increase (95% CI: 0.74-1.0), and a 1.0 µg/m³ increase in time period 3 (95% CI: 0.87-1.1). PM2.5 level was correlated to IHD mortality in all time periods (Period 1 r2 = 0.46, p = 0.0001; Period 2, r2 = 0.34, p = 0.008; Period 3 r2 = 0.51, p value <0.0001). CONCLUSION: Continued declines in ischemic heart disease mortality will depend on the concerted efforts of clinicians in continuing management of the traditional risk factors with appropriate medication use, acute interventions for coronary syndromes, the necessity of patient self-management of high risk behaviors associated with smoking and obesity, and the development of coordinated actions with policy makers to reduce environmental exposure in their respective communities.

Multi-elemental characterization of tunnel and road dusts in Houston, Texas using dynamic reaction cell-quadrupole-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry: evidence for the release of platinum group and anthropogenic metals from motor vehicles.

Platinum group elements (PGEs) including Rh, Pd, and Pt are important tracers for vehicular emissions, though their measurement is often challenging and difficult to replicate in environmental campaigns. These challenges arise from sample preparation steps required for PGE quantitation, which often cause severe isobaric interferences and spectral overlaps from polyatomic species of other anthropogenically emitted metals. Consequently, most previous road dust studies have either only quantified PGEs or included a small number of anthropogenic elements. Therefore a novel analytical method was developed to simultaneously measure PGEs, lanthanoids, transition and main group elements to comprehensively characterize the elemental composition of urban road and tunnel dusts. Dust samples collected from the vicinity of high-traffic roadways and a busy underwater tunnel restricted to single-axle (predominantly gasoline-driven) vehicles in Houston, TX were analyzed for 45 metals with the newly developed method using dynamic reaction cell-quadrupole-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (DRC-q-ICP-MS). Average Rh, Pd and Pt concentrations were 152±52, 770±208 and 529±130 ng g(-1) respectively in tunnel dusts while they varied between 6 and 8 ng g(-1), 10 and 88 ng g(-1) and 35 and 131 ng g(-1) in surface road dusts. Elemental ratios and enrichment factors demonstrated that PGEs in dusts originated from autocatalyst attrition/abrasion. Strong evidence is also presented for mobile source emissions of Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Mo, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, W and Pb. However, all other elements including rare earths most likely arose from weathering, erosion and resuspension of crustal material. These are the first such detailed measurements in Houston, the largest city in TX and fourth largest in the United States. We posit that such investigations will assist in better understanding PGE concentrations in urban environments while providing elemental data necessary to better understand anthropogenic influences on their biogeochemical cycling.

Diurnal cycles of acrolein and other small aldehydes in regions impacted by vehicle emissions.

This research determined the diurnal and seasonal differences in the ambient atmospheric concentrations of acrolein and several small aldehydes and attempted to link the chemicals to their potential sources. Two summertime and two wintertime sampling episodes were conducted in Roseville, CA at a site located near several busy roadways. One additional sampling episode was conducted at a remote site in the summer to estimate regional background concentrations of aldehydes. Each sampling episode consisted of duplicate samples collected every two hours around the clock for three days. Acrolein concentrations did not correlate with traffic density, ozone concentrations, or tracers of direct vehicle emissions, which argues against vehicles being a dominant source of ambient acrolein through primary emissions or secondary oxidation products. The results showed that wintertime acrolein concentrations correlated well with 2-furaldehyde, which is a tracer of biomass burning, thus suggesting that wood smoke is an important source of ambient acrolein. Other regularly detected carbonyls were tentatively assigned to different source classes (direct vehicle emissions, photochemical oxidation, wood smoke or transport from the Sierra Nevada Mountains) based on time series patterns and correlations with indicators of potential sources (e.g., ozone, traffic density, etc.).