Building blue infrastructure: Assessing the key environmental issues and priority areas for ecological engineering initiatives in Australia's metropolitan embayments.

Ecological engineering principles are increasingly being applied to develop multifunctional artificial structures or rehabilitated habitats in coastal areas. Ecological engineering initiatives are primarily driven by marine scientists and coastal managers, but often the views of key user groups, which can strongly influence the success of projects, are not considered. We used an online survey and participatory mapping exercise to investigate differences in priority goals, sites and attitudes towards ecological engineering between marine scientists and coastal managers as compared to other stakeholders. The surveys were conducted across three Australian cities that varied in their level of urbanisation and environmental pressures. We tested the hypotheses that, relative to other stakeholders, marine scientists and coastal managers will: 1) be more supportive of ecological engineering; 2) be more likely to agree that enhancement of biodiversity and remediation of pollution are key priorities for ecological engineering; and 3) identify different priority areas and infrastructure or degraded habitats for ecological engineering. We also tested the hypothesis that 4) perceptions of ecological engineering would vary among locations, due to environmental and socio-economic differences. In all three harbours, marine scientists and coastal managers were more supportive of ecological engineering than other users. There was also greater support for ecological engineering in Sydney and Melbourne than Hobart. Most people identified transport infrastructure, in busy transport hubs (i.e. Circular Quay in Sydney, the Port in Melbourne and the Waterfront in Hobart) as priorities for ecological engineering, irrespective of their stakeholder group or location. There were, however, significant differences among locations in what people perceive as the key priorities for ecological engineering (i.e. biodiversity in Sydney and Melbourne vs. pollution in Hobart). Greater consideration of these location-specific differences is essential for effective management of artificial structures and rehabilitated habitats in urban embayments.

Effects of isoflavones on breast tissue and the thyroid hormone system in humans: a comprehensive safety evaluation.

Isoflavones are secondary plant constituents of certain foods and feeds such as soy, linseeds, and red clover. Furthermore, isoflavone-containing preparations are marketed as food supplements and so-called dietary food for special medical purposes to alleviate health complaints of peri- and postmenopausal women. Based on the bioactivity of isoflavones, especially their hormonal properties, there is an ongoing discussion regarding their potential adverse effects on human health. This review evaluates and summarises the evidence from interventional and observational studies addressing potential unintended effects of isoflavones on the female breast in healthy women as well as in breast cancer patients and on the thyroid hormone system. In addition, evidence from animal and in vitro studies considered relevant in this context was taken into account along with their strengths and limitations. Key factors influencing the biological effects of isoflavones, e.g., bioavailability, plasma and tissue concentrations, metabolism, temporality (pre- vs. postmenopausal women), and duration of isoflavone exposure, were also addressed. Final conclusions on the safety of isoflavones are guided by the aim of precautionary consumer protection.

Evaluating the definition of "stone free status" in contemporary urologic literature.

OBJECTIVE: There is no standardized definition of stone free after renal stone surgery. The lack of standardization prompted a review of the current urologic literature, to assess the definitions of stone free status, and how imaging is used to determine stone free status. METHODS: A literature search on PubMed for the MeSH terms for percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL), ureteroscopy with lithotripsy, shock wave lithotripsy (SWL), and laser lithotripsy, published in English between January 2007 and January 2010 was performed. Case reports, articles not evaluating stone free outcomes, and review articles were excluded. Articles were evaluated for the treatment modality, definition of stone free status, and the imaging modality employed to determine stone free status. RESULTS: This search yielded 417 articles of which 249 met inclusion criteria. Stone free was defined in 169 articles (68%). The most common definition of stone free was "no stones" (47%), but a total of seven different definitions were encountered. The most common treatment modality was PCNL (47%), followed by SWL (33%), and URS (13%). The most common detection modality was KUB alone (28%), the second most common being KUB and US combined (22%). CONCLUSIONS: Nearly one-third of articles evaluating surgical management of urinary calculi do not define stone free status; when stone free is defined, there is wide variation as to that definition. Furthermore, vast differences exist in the type of imaging used to define stone free status. The urologic community should standardize the reporting of stone free outcomes in the urologic literature.

Making seawalls multifunctional: The positive effects of seeded bivalves and habitat structure on species diversity and filtration rates.

The marine environment is being increasingly modified by the construction of artificial structures, the impacts of which may be mitigated through eco-engineering. To date, eco-engineering has predominantly aimed to increase biodiversity, but enhancing other ecological functions is arguably of equal importance for artificial structures. Here, we manipulated complexity through habitat structure (flat, and 2.5 cm, 5 cm deep vertical and 5 cm deep horizontal crevices) and seeding with the native oyster (Saccostrea glomerata, unseeded and seeded) on concrete tiles (0.25 m × 0.25 m) affixed to seawalls to investigate whether complexity (both orientation and depth of crevices) influences particle removal rates by suspension feeders and colonisation by different functional groups, and whether there are any ecological trade-offs between these functions. After 12 months, complex seeded tiles generally supported a greater abundance of suspension feeding taxa and had higher particle removal rates than flat tiles or unseeded tiles. The richness and diversity of taxa also increased with complexity. The effect of seeding was, however, generally weaker on tiles with complex habitat structure. However, the orientation of habitat complexity and the depth of the crevices did not influence particle removal rates or colonising taxa. Colonisation by non-native taxa was low compared to total taxa richness. We did not detect negative ecological trade-offs between increased particle removal rates and diversity and abundance of key functional groups. Our results suggest that the addition of complexity to marine artificial structures could potentially be used to enhance both biodiversity and particle removal rates. Consequently, complexity should be incorporated into future eco-engineering projects to provide a range of ecological functions in urbanised estuaries.

Event-by-event fluctuations of azimuthal particle anisotropy in Au+Au collisions at square root(sNN) = 200 GeV.

This Letter presents the first measurement of event-by-event fluctuations of the elliptic flow parameter v(2) in Au+Au collisions at square root(s(NN))=200 GeV as a function of collision centrality. The relative nonstatistical fluctuations of the v(2) parameter are found to be approximately 40%. The results, including contributions from event-by-event elliptic flow fluctuations and from azimuthal correlations that are unrelated to the reaction plane (nonflow correlations), establish an upper limit on the magnitude of underlying elliptic flow fluctuations. This limit is consistent with predictions based on spatial fluctuations of the participating nucleons in the initial nuclear overlap region. These results provide important constraints on models of the initial state and hydrodynamic evolution of relativistic heavy ion collisions.

High transverse momentum triggered correlations over a large pseudorapidity acceptance in Au + Au collisions at square root(s(NN)) = 200 GeV.

A measurement of two-particle correlations with a high transverse momentum trigger particle (p(T)(trig) > 2.5 GeV/c) is presented for Au+Au collisions at square root(s(NN)) = 200 GeV over the uniquely broad longitudinal acceptance of the PHOBOS detector (-4 < Delta eta < 2). A broadening of the away-side azimuthal correlation compared to elementary collisions is observed at all Delta eta. As in p+p collisions, the near side is characterized by a peak of correlated partners at small angle relative to the trigger particle. However, in central Au+Au collisions an additional correlation extended in Delta eta and known as the "ridge" is found to reach at least |Delta eta| approximately = 4. The ridge yield is largely independent of Delta eta over the measured range, and it decreases towards more peripheral collisions. For the chosen (p(T)(trig) cut, the ridge yield is consistent with zero for events with less than roughly 100 participating nucleons.

Sediment metal enrichment and ecological risk assessment of ten ports and estuaries in the World Harbours Project.

Ten global harbours were assessed for sediment quality by quantifying the magnitude of anthropogenic change and ecological risk. Anthropogenic change (enrichment) was high for Derwent River and Sydney estuary, moderate for Santander Harbour, Rio de Janeiro and Dublin Port, slight for Hong Kong, minimal for Darwin. All 10 enrichment indices used showed similar results. Derwent River sediment was rated at high ecological risk, followed by Sydney and Santander estuaries with moderate risk. Auckland and Darwin sediments exhibited minimal ecological risk and sediment in the remaining harbours (Dublin, Hong Kong, Ravenna, Ria de Vigo and Rio de Janeiro) were assessed at slight ecological risk. The extraordinary variety of environments and types/quantities/qualities of data investigated resulted in as much a critique and development of methodology, as an assessment of human impact, including unique techniques for elemental normalisation and contaminant classification. Recommendations for an improved technical framework for sediment quality assessment are provided.

Algal Chemical Defense Against Herbivores: Allocation of Phenolic Compounds in the Kelp Alaria marginata.

Higher concentrations of phenolic compounds were found in the reproductive fronds (sporophylls) of the intertidal kelp Alaria marginata than were found in the vegetative blades. The sporophylls were consumed by herbivorous snails at a lower rate than were the vegetative blades, in both field and laboratory studies. These results indicate that differential internal production of defensive compounds in a marine alga can significantly affect the pattern of herbivory on the plant.

Urban blue: A global analysis of the factors shaping people's perceptions of the marine environment and ecological engineering in harbours.

Marine harbours are the focus of a diverse range of activities and subject to multiple anthropogenically induced pressures. Support for environmental management options aimed at improving degraded harbours depends on understanding the factors which influence people's perceptions of harbour environments. We used an online survey, across 12 harbours, to assess sources of variation people's perceptions of harbour health and ecological engineering. We tested the hypotheses: 1) people living near impacted harbours would consider their environment to be more unhealthy and degraded, be more concerned about the environment and supportive of and willing to pay for ecological engineering relative to those living by less impacted harbours, and 2) people with greater connectedness to the harbour would be more concerned about and have greater perceived knowledge of the environment, and be more supportive of, knowledgeable about and willing to pay for ecological engineering, than those with less connectedness. Across twelve locations, the levels of degradation and modification by artificial structures were lower and the concern and knowledge about the environment and ecological engineering were greater in the six Australasian and American than the six European and Asian harbours surveyed. We found that people's perception of harbours as healthy or degraded, but not their concern for the environment, reflected the degree to which harbours were impacted. There was a positive relationship between the percentage of shoreline modified and the extent of support for and people's willingness to pay indirect costs for ecological engineering. At the individual level, measures of connectedness to the harbour environment were good predictors of concern for and perceived knowledge about the environment but not support for and perceived knowledge about ecological engineering. To make informed decisions, it is important that people are empowered with sufficient knowledge of the environmental issues facing their harbour and ecological engineering options.

Rat feeding trials: A comprehensive assessment of contaminants in both genetically modified maize and resulting pellets.

We analyzed a comprehensive set of contaminants in MON810 and NK603 genetically modified (GM) maize, and their non-GM counterparts, used in a rat feeding study (the GMO90 + project). Both the maize grains and the manufactured pellets were characterized. Only minor differences in contaminant levels between GM and corresponding non-GM harvests were evidenced. Fumonisin and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins were the pollutants present in the highest amounts, with concentrations that were however largely below acceptance reference values. Our data reporting slightly lower levels of fumonisin in MON810 compared to its non-GM counterpart corroborate the lower susceptibility of insect resistant Bt maize to fumonisin-producing fungi. Traces of glyphosate (0.016 mg/kg) were evidenced in grains from NK603 treated crops. Regarding the pellets, analysis of more than 650 potentially toxic substances revealed low amounts of various mycotoxins, pesticides and heavy metals. Concentrations of contaminants quantified in the pellets were however far below the maximum level of residues values set by regulatory agencies, and no substantial differences in contaminants between GM and non-GM pellets were observed. Moreover, when comparing the contamination status of grains and pellets, we demonstrate yet again that characterizing the grains is actually not sufficient to foresee the quality of the produced pellets.

Mixture effects of azole fungicides on the adrenal gland in a broad dose range.

Consumers are exposed to low concentrations of a variety of pesticide residues in or on food. Some of them might interfere with the endocrine system. While each individual active substance has been extensively tested for toxicity and safety, potential combination effects possibly resulting from combined exposure to different pesticides have seldomly been tested so far, especially in vivo. Since the adrenal gland is a key endocrine organ, we investigated if and how substances of a group of fungicides presumed to interfere with the biosynthesis of steroid hormones affect this organ when applied individually and in combination in a broad dose range. A 28-day feeding study was conducted in Wistar rats by using three (tri)azole fungicides considered to potentially affect the endocrine system (cyproconazole, epoxiconazole and prochloraz) individually at five dose levels, ranging from 0.9ppm to 2400ppm, and in combination at three dose levels. The parameters analysed included classical toxicology (pathology, histopathology, clinical chemistry) and molecular toxicology endpoints (gene expression arrays and quantitative real time PCR e.g. of Star, HSD3ß, Cyp11a1, Cyp11b1, Cyp11b2, Cyp 21, ApoE), as well as hormone analysis. A dose-dependent decrease in the adrenal gland weight of rats treated with epoxiconazole alone, which was accompanied by an atrophy of the adrenal gland as well as by an increase in the serum cholesterol level and which only became statistically significant at the top dose levels, was observed. These effects were attenuated in the combination experiments, although the same epoxiconazole concentration was used.

Furanones.

The red alga Delisea pulchra has been a model organism for understanding the ecological role of secondary metabolites as natural antifoulants. Furanones are produced by the plant and delivered to the surface at a concentration where they regulate bacterial colonisation and the settlement of epibiota. This biological understanding has led to the application of furanones as inhibitors of bacterial- and macro-fouling. Furanones inhibit bacterial colonisation and biofilm development through interference with a key bacterial quorum-sensing pathway, the acylated homoserine lactone regulatory system in Gram-negative bacteria. They also interfere with the alternative AI-2 signalling system in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Synthetic programs have developed a library of more than 200 furanone and furanone-analogues including surface attached-furanones. These furanone analogues are potent anti-infectives and inhibit pathogenic phenotypes in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as demonstrated in-vitro using gene microarrays, and in-vivo using mouse models. Additionally, furanones inhibit the expression of bacterial exo-enzymes that actively degrade components of the immune system thereby enhancing the immune response. Surface-attached furanones immobilised on catheters also inhibit bacterial attachment and retain activity for extended periods. Furanones are strong deterrents of the settlement and growth of macrofouling organisms and as such have potential application as a marine antifouling technology. Laboratory antifouling assays have been used to identify effective and safe furanone-analogues while field trials of furanones incorporated into coatings and polymers demonstrate efficacies similar to commercial biocides. Further development is required to control the release of compounds from suitable carriers to extend coating/polymer lifespans. This review summarises the extensive work on furanones focusing on their natural and applied antifouling activities.

Phenotype and differentiation patterns of the oval cell lines OC/CDE 6 and OC/CDE 22 derived from the livers of carcinogen-treated rats.

An electron microscopic, immunocytochemical, and enzyme cytochemical analysis of the previously established oval cell lines OC/CDE 6 and OC/CDE 22 was performed to characterize the phenotype and differentiation patterns of long-term cultures of oval cells. It was found that alpha-fetoprotein, albumin, and cytokeratin 19 are present in all cultured cells. This indicates that oval cells constitute a population of immature cells expressing features of the antigenic phenotype of both the hepatocyte and bile ductular cell lineages. An electron microscopic examination revealed a gradual alteration in the ultrastructure of oval cells toward hepatocyte-like cells. The majority of the oval cells were positive for glucose-6-phosphatase activity. A particularly striking observation was that oval cells were heterogeneous in terms of peroxisome content. Only about 50% of the oval cells had peroxisomes in the cytoplasm, these cells probably being part of the hepatocyte lineage. The other cultured cells did not reveal catalase activity and probably represented cells committed to the bile ductular cell lineage. An addition of clofibrate to the culture medium resulted in a marked peroxisome proliferation in all oval cells, indicating that oval cells might be able to change their differentiation pathway depending on environmental influence toward the hepatocyte lineage. It is most intriguing that in oval cells with abundant cytoplasm peroxisome proliferation was accompanied by proliferation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (this is a morphological marker of mature hepatocytes). Taken together, our findings suggest that within the oval cell lines OC/CDE 6 and OC/CDE 22 cells undergoing a morphological and functional differentiation along the hepatocyte and bile ductular cell lineages are present.

27 years of benthic and coral community dynamics on turbid, highly urbanised reefs off Singapore.

Coral cover on reefs is declining globally due to coastal development, overfishing and climate change. Reefs isolated from direct human influence can recover from natural acute disturbances, but little is known about long term recovery of reefs experiencing chronic human disturbances. Here we investigate responses to acute bleaching disturbances on turbid reefs off Singapore, at two depths over a period of 27 years. Coral cover declined and there were marked changes in coral and benthic community structure during the first decade of monitoring at both depths. At shallower reef crest sites (3-4 m), benthic community structure recovered towards pre-disturbance states within a decade. In contrast, there was a net decline in coral cover and continuing shifts in community structure at deeper reef slope sites (6-7 m). There was no evidence of phase shifts to macroalgal dominance but coral habitats at deeper sites were replaced by unstable substrata such as fine sediments and rubble. The persistence of coral dominance at chronically disturbed shallow sites is likely due to an abundance of coral taxa which are tolerant to environmental stress. In addition, high turbidity may interact antagonistically with other disturbances to reduce the impact of thermal stress and limit macroalgal growth rates.

Coral community response to bleaching on a highly disturbed reef.

While many studies of coral bleaching report on broad, regional scale responses, fewer examine variation in susceptibility among coral taxa and changes in community structure, before, during and after bleaching on individual reefs. Here we report in detail on the response to bleaching by a coral community on a highly disturbed reef site south of mainland Singapore before, during and after a major thermal anomaly in 2010. To estimate the capacity for resistance to thermal stress, we report on: a) overall bleaching severity during and after the event, b) differences in bleaching susceptibility among taxa during the event, and c) changes in coral community structure one year before and after bleaching. Approximately two thirds of colonies bleached, however, post-bleaching recovery was quite rapid and, importantly, coral taxa that are usually highly susceptible were relatively unaffected. Although total coral cover declined, there was no significant change in coral taxonomic community structure before and after bleaching. Several factors may have contributed to the overall high resistance of corals at this site including Symbiodinium affiliation, turbidity and heterotrophy. Our results suggest that, despite experiencing chronic anthropogenic disturbances, turbid shallow reef communities may be remarkably resilient to acute thermal stress.

Kinetics of the AHL regulatory system in a model biofilm system: how many bacteria constitute a "quorum"?

Acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs) regulate a wide variety of phenotypes in Gram-negative bacteria. Most research suggests that AHL-mediated phenotypes are not expressed in populations until late logarithmic phase or stationary phase. Here, we model how the concentration of AHLs inside bacterial cells and in a biofilm changes over time as a function of population growth rate, diffusion of AHLs and the rate of autoinduction. Our theoretical results show that the concentration of AHLs inside a single bacterium (and by implication induction of a phenotype) has a non-trivial behaviour over time, and often exhibits a rapid increase early in population growth. This rapid increase is followed by a plateau, followed by another rise in the concentration of AHLs, to a second plateau. High concentrations of AHLs inside the bacterial cell early in population growth are positively affected by slow diffusion rates out of the cell and the biofilm, slow bacterial growth rates and fast autoinduction. In contrast, fast growth rates, slow autoinduction rates and high diffusion rates result in a high concentration plateau in stationary phase. More generally, the density-dependent nature of AHL regulation can be viewed as a trade-off between factors that dilute intracellular concentrations of AHLs (diffusion out of the cell, cell division), and those that increase concentrations (a slowing or restriction of diffusion or growth, or autoinduction). These results suggest that expression of AHL-mediated phenotypes can occur at relatively low cell densities and low external/environmental AHL concentrations.

Chemical mediation of coral larval settlement by crustose coralline algae.

The majority of marine invertebrates produce dispersive larvae which, in order to complete their life cycles, must attach and metamorphose into benthic forms. This process, collectively referred to as settlement, is often guided by habitat-specific cues. While the sources of such cues are well known, the links between their biological activity, chemical identity, presence and quantification in situ are largely missing. Previous work on coral larval settlement in vitro has shown widespread induction by crustose coralline algae (CCA) and in particular their associated bacteria. However, we found that bacterial biofilms on CCA did not initiate ecologically realistic settlement responses in larvae of 11 hard coral species from Australia, Guam, Singapore and Japan. We instead found that algal chemical cues induce identical behavioral responses of larvae as per live CCA. We identified two classes of CCA cell wall-associated compounds--glycoglycerolipids and polysaccharides--as the main constituents of settlement inducing fractions. These algae-derived fractions induce settlement and metamorphosis at equivalent concentrations as present in CCA, both in small scale laboratory assays and under flow-through conditions, suggesting their ability to act in an ecologically relevant fashion to steer larval settlement of corals. Both compound classes were readily detected in natural samples.

An assessment of cognitive function and mood in chronic fatigue syndrome.

Data were gathered regarding the associates of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) with: (1) speed of cognitive processing, (2) motor speed, (3) ability to sustain attention, and (4) mood. Patients were given a brief neuropsychological test battery before and after double-blind treatment with terfenadine or placebo and completed a daily mood rating scale (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) during the study. CFS patients exhibited slower cognitive processing and motor speed and lower positive affect, as compared to data reported from previous studies of healthy subjects and other patient groups; however, CFS patients did not exhibit deficits in sustained attention in comparison to other groups. The CFS patients' ability to attend to verbal versus figural stimuli and mood ratings were different from those reported in studies of patients with depression. Because of methodological limitations, these findings are preliminary, but they encourage further assessment of cognitive dysfunction and mood in CFS.

Host-plant adaptation in an herbivorous marine amphipod: genetic potential not realized in field populations.

Evolutionary responses of herbivores to their host plants depend not only on selection from plants, but also on the genetic basis of traits relating to host use. The genetic basis of such traits has been investigated extensively among terrestrial insect herbivores, but has received almost no attention among marine herbivores. We tested whether performance traits in the herbivorous marine amphipod Peramphithoe parmerong display heritable variation and, for the first time for a marine herbivore, whether selection has resulted in local adaptation to host plants on two spatial scales. Peramphithoe parmerong displayed heritable genetic variation for survival on two host macroalgae, the high-quality Sargassum linearifolium and the poor-quality Padina crassa, and for growth on S. linearifolium. Differences in performance on different hosts thus have the potential to select for differential use of hosts by this amphipod. Despite this potential, there was no evidence among field populations of local adaptation to host algae on either scale tested: between hosts within a site or among sites differing in algal species composition. Within a site, amphipods were not more likely to prefer or perform better on the host on which they were collected. Similarly, amphipods collected from sites in which P. crassa was present were not more likely to perform well on this host than amphipods collected from sites where this alga was not found. Ecological factors that may explain the persistence of P. parmerong on P. crassa and the possibility of phylogenetic constraints on host use by P. parmerong are discussed.

The distribution of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases in rat liver parenchymal and nonparenchymal cells.

Activities for the glucuronidation of 1-naphthol, morphine and bilirubin as well as for the sulfation of 2-naphthol have been determined in homogenates of parenchymal, Kupffer and endothelial cells isolated from livers of untreated and Aroclor 1254-pretreated rats. In addition, Western blot analyses using different polyclonal antibodies against UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UDP-GTs) were performed with similar preparations. All enzymes under investigation were expressed at high levels in liver parenchymal cells. The constitutive expression and inducibility of UDP-GT isozyme(s) for 1-naphthol glucuronidation was also clearly demonstrated in Kupffer and endothelial cells. Furthermore, the presence of other UDP-GT isozymes was detected in preparations from these cells. No significant sulfation of 2-naphthol was detectable in Kupffer and endothelial cell homogenates. While the glucuronidation of 1-naphthol and morphine was significantly induced in all cell types by Aroclor 1254-pretreatment of the animals, the glucuronidation of bilirubin and the sulfation of 2-naphthol remained unchanged. Since the specific activity of conjugation reactions is much lower in liver nonparenchymal cells than in liver parenchymal cells, and nonparenchymal cells contribute only about 6% to the total liver protein, protection of the cells themselves rather than contribution to the overall metabolism of xenobiotics seems to be the significant role of these xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the sinusoidal lining cells.