Sedative but not anxiolytic properties of benzodiazepines are mediated by the GABA(A) receptor alpha1 subtype.

Inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain is largely mediated by GABA(A) receptors. Potentiation of GABA receptor activation through an allosteric benzodiazepine (BZ) site produces the sedative, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant, anticonvulsant and cognition-impairing effects of clinically used BZs such as diazepam. We created genetically modified mice (alpha1 H101R) with a diazepam-insensitive alpha1 subtype and a selective BZ site ligand, L-838,417, to explore GABA(A) receptor subtypes mediating specific physiological effects. These two complimentary approaches revealed that the alpha1 subtype mediated the sedative, but not the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines. This finding suggests ways to improve anxiolytics and to develop drugs for other neurological disorders based on their specificity for GABA(A) receptor subtypes in distinct neuronal circuits.

Synthesis and muscarinic activity of quinuclidinyl- and (1-azanorbornyl)pyrazine derivatives.

The synthesis and cortical muscarinic activity of a novel series of pyrazine-based agonists is described. Quinuclidine and azanorbornane derivatives were prepared either by reaction of lithiated pyrazines with azabicyclic ketones, followed by chlorination and reduction, or by reaction of the lithium enolate of the azabicyclic ester with 2-chloropyrazines followed by ester hydrolysis and decarboxylation. Substitution at all three positions of the heteroaromatic ring has been explored. Optimal muscarinic agonist activity was observed for unsubstituted pyrazines in the azanorbornane series. The exo-1-azanorbornane 18a is one of the most efficacious and potent centrally active muscarinic agonists known. Studies on the 3-substituted derivatives have provided evidence of the preferred conformation of these ligands for optimal muscarinic activity. Substitution at C6 gave ligands with increased affinity and reduced efficacy. Moving the position of the diazine ring nitrogens to give pyrimidine and pyridazine derivatives resulted in a significant loss of muscarinic activity.

Synthesis and serotonergic activity of 5-(oxadiazolyl)tryptamines: potent agonists for 5-HT1D receptors.

The synthesis and 5-HT1D receptor activity of a novel series of 5-(oxadiazolyl)tryptamines is described. Modifications of the oxadiazole 3-substituent, length of the linking chain (n), and the amine substituents are explored and reveal a large binding pocket in the 5-HT1D receptor domain. Oxadiazole substituents such as benzyl are accommodated without loss of agonist potency or efficacy. The incorporation of polar functionality on a phenyl or benzyl spacer group results in a 10-fold increase in affinity and functional potency. Optimal 5-HT1D activity is observed when the heterocycle is conjugated with the indole and the benzyl sulfonamides 20t and 20u represent some of the most potent 5-HT1D agonists known. Replacement of O for S in the heterocycle leads to a further increase in potency. Deletion of oxadiazole N-2 does not reduce activity, suggesting the requirement for only one H-bond acceptor in this location. The selectivity of these compounds for 5-HT1D receptors over other serotonergic receptors is discussed. Sulfonamide 20t shows > or = 1000-fold selectivity for 5-HT1D over 5-HT2, 5-HT1C, and 5-HT3 receptors and 10-fold selectivity with respect to 5-HT1A receptors. The functional activity of this series of compounds is studied and demonstrates high 5-HT1D receptor potency and efficacy comparable to that of 5-HT.

Synthesis and serotonergic activity of N,N-dimethyl-2-[5-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1H-indol-3-yl]ethylamine and analogues: potent agonists for 5-HT1D receptors.

The synthesis and the 5-HT receptor activity of a novel series of N,N-dimethyltryptamines substituted in the 5-position with an imidazole, triazole, or tetrazole ring are described. The objective of this work was to identify potent and selective 5-HT1D receptor agonists with high oral bioavailability and low central nervous system penetration. Compounds have been prepared in which the azole ring is attached through either nitrogen or carbon to the indole. Conjugated and methylene-bridged derivatives have been studied (n = 0 or 1). Substitution of the azole ring has been explored either alpha or beta to the point of attachment to indole. In a series of N-linked azoles (X = N), simple unsubstituted compounds have high affinity and selectivity for 5-HT1D receptors. It is proposed that for good affinity and selectivity a hydrogen bond acceptor interaction with the 5-HT1D receptor, through a beta-nitrogen in the azole ring, is required. In a series of C-linked triazoles and tetrazoles (X = C), optimal affinity and selectivity for the 5-HT1D receptor was observed when the azole ring is substituted at the 1-position with a methyl or ethyl group. This study has led to the discovery of the 1,2,4-triazole 10a (MK-462) as a potent and selective 5-HT1D receptor agonist which has high oral bioavailability and rapid oral absorption. The in vitro activity and the preliminary pharmacokinetics of compounds in this series are presented.

Synthesis and serotonergic activity of 3-[2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)ethyl]indoles: potent agonists for the h5-HT1D receptor with high selectivity over the h5-HT1B receptor.

The design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a novel series of 3-[2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)ethyl]indoles with excellent selectivity for h5-HT1D (formerly 5-HT1Dalpha) receptors over h5-HT1B (formerly 5-HT1Dbeta) receptors are described. Clinically effective antimigraine drugs such as Sumatriptan show little selectivity between h5-HT1D and h5-HT1B receptors. The differential expression of h5-HT1D and h5-HT1B receptors in neural and vascular tissue prompted an investigation of whether a compound selective for the h5-HT1D subtype would have the same clinical efficacy but with reduced side effects. The pyrrolidine 3b was initially identified as having 9-fold selectivity for h5-HT1D over h5-HT1B receptors. Substitution of the pyrrolidine ring of 3b with methylbenzylamine groups gave compounds with nanomolar affinity for the h5-HT1D receptor and 100-fold selectivity with respect to h5-HT1B receptors. Modification of the indole 5-substituent led to the oxazolidinones 24a,b with up to 163-fold selectivity for the h5-HT1D subtype and improved selectivity over other serotonin receptors. The compounds were shown to be full agonists by measurement of agonist-induced [35S]GTPgammaS binding in CHO cells expressed with h5-HT receptors. This study suggests that the h5-HT1D and h5-HT1B receptors can be differentiated by appropriate substitution of the ligand in the region which binds to the aspartate residue and reveals a large binding pocket in the h5-HT1D receptor domain which is absent for the h5-HT1B receptor. The compounds described herein will be important tools to delineate the role of h5-HT1D receptors in migraine.

Synthesis and biological activity of 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives: highly potent and efficacious agonists for cortical muscarinic receptors.

The synthesis and biochemical evaluation of novel 1,2,4-oxadiazole-based muscarinic agonists which can readily penetrate into the CNS is reported. Efficacy and binding of these compounds are markedly influenced by the structure and physicochemical properties of the cationic head group. In a series of azabicyclic ligands efficacy and affinity are influenced by the size of the surface area presented to the receptor, at the active site, and the degree of conformational flexibility. The exo-1-azanorbornane 16a represents the optimum arrangement, and this compound is one of the most efficacious and potent muscarinic agonists known. In a series of isoquinuclidine based muscarinic agonists efficacy and affinity are influenced by the geometry between the cationic head.group and hydrogen bond acceptor pharmacophore and steric bulk in the vicinity of the base. The anti configuration represented by 22a is optimal for muscarinic activity. Ligands with pKa below 6.5 show poor binding to the muscarinic receptor as exemplified by the diazabicyclic derivative 42.

3-(Piperazinylpropyl)indoles: selective, orally bioavailable h5-HT1D receptor agonists as potential antimigraine agents.

Clinically effective antimigraine drugs such as Sumatriptan have similar affinity at h5-HT1D and h5-HT1B receptors. In the search for a h5-HT1D-selective agonist as an antimigraine agent, a novel series of 3-(propylpiperazinyl)indoles have been synthesized and evaluated at h5-HT1D and h5-HT1B receptors. This class of compounds has provided subnanomolar, fully efficacious h5-HT1D agonists with up to 200-fold selectivity for the h5-HT1D receptor over the h5-HT1B receptor. Unlike other h5-HT1D-selective series, several propylpiperazines demonstrate good oral bioavailability. The optimum compound was 1-(3-[5-(1,2, 4-triazol-4-yl)-1H-indol-3-yl]propyl)-4-(2-(3-fluorophenyl)ethyl)p ipe razine (7f) which has excellent selectivity for h5-HT1D receptors over other 5-HT receptor subtypes and good oral bioavailability in three species. Compound 7f has been selected for further investigation as a potential development candidate in the treatment of migraine.

L-694,247: a potent 5-HT1D receptor agonist.

1. The 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor binding selectivity profile of a novel, potent 5-HT1D receptor agonist, L-694,247 (2-[5-[3-(4-methylsulphonylamino)benzyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl ]- 1H-indole-3-yl]ethylamine) was assessed and compared with that of the 5-HT1-like receptor agonist, sumatriptan. 2. L-694,247 had an affinity (pIC50) of 10.03 at the 5-HT1D binding site and 9.08 at the 5-HT1B binding site (sumatriptan: pIC50 values 8.22 and 5.94 respectively). L-694,247 retained good selectivity with respect to the 5-HT1A binding site (pIC50 = 8.64), the 5-HT1C binding site (6.42), the 5-HT2 binding site (6.50) and the 5-HT1E binding site (5.66). The pIC50 values for sumatriptan at these radioligand binding sites were 6.14, 5.0, < 5.0 and 5.64 respectively. Both L-694,247 and sumatriptan were essentially inactive at the 5-HT3 recognition site. 3. L-694,247, like sumatriptan, displayed a similar efficacy to 5-HT in inhibiting forskolin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase in guinea-pig substantia nigra although L-694,247 (pEC50 = 9.1) was more potent than sumatriptan (6.2) in this 5-HT1D receptor mediated functional response. L-694,247 (pEC50 = 9.4) was also more potent than sumatriptan (6.5) in a second 5-HT1D receptor mediated functional response, the inhibition of K(+)-evoked [3H]-5-HT release from guinea-pig frontal cortex slices. 4. The excellent agreement observed for L-694,247 between the 5-HTlD radioligand binding affinity and the functional potency confirm that the two functional models (the inhibition of forskolin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase in guinea-pig substantia nigra and the inhibition of K+-evoked [3H]-5-HT release from guinea-pig frontal cortex) do indeed reflect 5-HTID-mediated events.5. L-694,247 is a novel, highly potent 5-HTID/5-HTIB receptor ligand which should prove useful for the exploration of the physiological role of these receptors in animals.

L-689,660, a novel cholinomimetic with functional selectivity for M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors.

1. L-689,660, 1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octane, 3-(6-chloropyrazinyl)maleate, a novel cholinomimetic, demonstrated high affinity binding (pKD (apparent) 7.42) at rat cerebral cortex muscarinic receptors. L-689,660 had a low ratio (34) of pKD (apparent) values for the displacement of binding of the antagonist ([3H]-N-methylscopolamine ([3H]-NMS) compared with the displacement of the agonist [3H]-oxotremorine-M ([3H]-Oxo-M), in rat cerebral cortex. Low NMS/Oxo-M ratios have been shown previously to be a characteristic of compounds that are low efficacy partial agonists with respect to stimulation of phosphatidyl inositol turnover in the cerebral cortex. 2. L-689,660 showed no muscarinic receptor subtype selectivity in radioligand binding assays but showed functional selectivity in pharmacological assays. At M1 muscarinic receptors in the rat superior cervical ganglion, L-689,660 was a potent (pEC50 7.3 +/- 0.2) full agonist in comparison with (+/-)-muscarine. At M3 receptors in the guinea-pig ileum myenteric plexus-longitudinal muscle or in trachea, L-689,660 was again a potent agonist (pEC50 7.5 +/- 0.2 and 7.7 +/- 0.3 respectively) but had a lower maximum response than carbachol. In contrast L-689,660 was an antagonist at M2 receptors in guinea-pig atria (pA2 7.2 (95% confidence limits 7, 7.4)) and at muscarinic autoreceptors in rat hippocampal slices. 3. The putative M1-selective muscarinic agonist, AF102B (cis-2-methylspiro-(1,3-oxathiolane 5,3')-quinuclidine hydrochloride) was found to have a profile similar to L-689,660 but had up to 100 times less affinity in binding and functional assays.RS-86 (2-ethyl-8-methyl-2,8-diazospiro[4,5]decan 1,3-dionehydrochloride) also had lower affinity than L-689,660, and had no binding selectivity for muscarinic receptor subtypes. RS-86 had a higher NMS/Oxo-M ratio than L-689,660 and was a full agonist at MI,M2 and M3 receptors in the functional pharmacological assays.4. The functional selectivity of L-689,660 in muscarinic pharmacological assays is consistent with the effects of a low efficacy partial agonist in tissues with different effective receptor reserves.

MRK-409 (MK-0343), a GABAA receptor subtype-selective partial agonist, is a non-sedating anxiolytic in preclinical species but causes sedation in humans.

MRK-409 binds to α1-, α2-, α3- and α5-containing human recombinant GABA(A) receptors with comparable high affinity (0.21-0.40 nM). However, MRK-409 has greater agonist efficacy at the α3 compared with α1 subtypes (respective efficacies relative to the full agonist chlordiazepoxide of 0.45 and 0.18). This compound readily penetrates the brain in rats and occupies the benzodiazepine site of GABA(A) receptors, measured using an in vivo [(3)H]flumazenil binding assay, with an Occ(50) of 2.2 mg/kg p.o. and a corresponding plasma EC(50) of 115 ng/mL. Behaviourally, the α3-preferring agonist efficacy profile of MRK-409 produced anxiolytic-like activity in rodent and primate unconditioned and conditioned models of anxiety with minimum effective doses corresponding to occupancies, depending on the particular model, ranging from ∼35% to 65% yet there were minimal overt signs of sedation at occupancies greater than 90%. In humans, however, safety and tolerability studies showed that there was pronounced sedation at a dose of 2 mg, resulting in a maximal tolerated dose of 1 mg. This 2 mg dose corresponded to a C(max) plasma concentration of 28 ng/mL, which, based on the rodent plasma EC(50) for occupancy of 115 ng/mL, suggested that sedation in humans occurs at low levels of occupancy. This was confirmed in human positron emission tomography studies, in which [(11)C]flumazenil uptake following a single dose of 1 mg MRK-409 was comparable to that of placebo, indicating that occupancy of GABA(A) receptor benzodiazepine binding sites by MRK-409 was below the limits of detection (i.e. <10%). Taken together, these data show that MRK-409 causes sedation in humans at a dose (2 mg) corresponding to levels of occupancy considerably less than those predicted from rodent models to be required for anxiolytic efficacy (∼35-65%). Thus, the preclinical non-sedating anxiolytic profile of MRK-409 did not translate into humans and further development of this compound was halted.

Preclinical and clinical pharmacology of TPA023B, a GABAA receptor α2/α3 subtype-selective partial agonist.

In the accompanying paper we describe how MRK-409 unexpectedly produced sedation in man at relatively low levels of GABA(A) receptor occupancy (∼10%). Since it was not clear whether this sedation was mediated via the α2/α3 or α1 GABA(A) subtype(s), we characterized the properties of TPA023B, a high-affinity imidazotriazine which, like MRK-409, has partial agonist efficacy at the α2 and α3 subtype but is an antagonist at the α1 subtype, at which MRK-409 has weak partial agonism. TPA023B gave dose- and time-dependent occupancy of rat brain GABA(A) receptors as measured using an in vivo [(3)H]flumazenil binding assay, with 50% occupancy corresponding to a respective dose and plasma drug concentration of 0.09 mg/kg and 19 ng/mL, the latter of which was similar to that observed in mice (25 ng/mL) and comparable to values obtained in baboon and man using [(11)C]flumazenil PET (10 and 5.8 ng/mL, respectively). TPA023B was anxiolytic in rodent and primate (squirrel monkey) models of anxiety (elevated plus maze, fear-potentiated startle, conditioned suppression of drinking, conditioned emotional response) yet had no significant effects in rodent or primate assays of ataxia and/or myorelaxation (rotarod, chain-pulling, lever pressing), up to doses (10 mg/kg) corresponding to occupancy of greater than 99%. In man, TPA023B was well tolerated at a dose (1.5 mg) that produced occupancy of >50%, suggesting that the sedation previously seen with MRK-409 is due to the partial agonist efficacy of that compound at the α1 subtype, and highlighting the importance of antagonist efficacy at this particular GABA(A) receptor population for avoiding sedation in man.