Surface-tethered iterative carbohydrate synthesis: a spacer study.

Comparative study of Surface-Tethered Iterative Carbohydrate Synthesis (STICS) using HPLC-assisted experimental setup clearly demonstrates benefits of using longer spacer-anchoring systems. The use of mixed self-assembled monolayers helps provide the required space for glycosylation reaction around the immobilized glycosyl acceptor. Both extension of the spacer length and using mixed self-assembled monolayers help promote the reaction, and the beneficial effects may include moving the glycosyl acceptor further out into solution and providing additional conformational flexibility. It is possible that surface-immobilized glycosyl acceptors with a longer spacer (C8-O-C8)-lipoic acid have a higher tendency to mimic a solution-phase reaction environment than acceptors with shorter spacers.

Well-defined, size-tunable, multifunctional micelles for efficient paclitaxel delivery for cancer treatment.

We have developed a well-defined and biocompatible amphiphilic telodendrimer system (PEG-b-dendritic oligo-cholic acid) which can self-assemble into multifunctional micelles in aqueous solution for efficient delivery of hydrophobic drugs such as paclitaxel. In this telodendrimer system, cholic acid is essential for the formation of stable micelles with high drug loading capacity, owing to its facial amphiphilicity. A series of telodendrimers with variable length of PEG chain and number of cholic acid in the dendritic blocks were synthesized. The structure and molecular weight of each of these telodendrimers were characterized, and their critical micellization concentration (CMC), drug-loading properties, particle sizes, and cytotoxicity were examined and evaluated for further optimization for anticancer drug delivery. The sizes of the micelles, with and without paclitaxel loading, could be tuned from 11.5 to 21 nm and from 15 to 141 nm, respectively. Optical imaging studies in xenograft models demonstrated preferential uptake of the smaller paclitaxel-loaded micelles (17-60 nm) by the tumor and the larger micelles (150 nm) by the liver and lung. The toxicity and antitumor efficacy profiles of these paclitaxel-loaded micelles in xenograft models were found to be superior to those of Taxol and Abraxane.

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Study of Concanavalin A Binding to Self-Assembled Monolayers of Mannosides on Gold Wire Electrodes.

The interactions of the lectin Concanavalin A (Con A) with self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of thiolated mono-, di-, and tri-mannosides were studied on the surface of gold wires using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The SAMs of mannosides were prepared either pure or along with thiolated triethylene glycol (TEG) at different molar ratios (1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:9, and 1:19) to better understand and optimize the interaction conditions. The charge-transfer resistance of the [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- redox probe was compared before and after the interaction at different concentrations of Con A to determine the equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) and limit of detection (LOD). Values of Kd were found in the nanomolar range showing multivalent interactions between mannosides and Con A, and LOD was found ranging from 4-13 nM depending on the type of mannoside SAM used. Analysis using the Hill equation suggests negative cooperativity in the binding behavior. Peanut agglutinin was used as a negative control, and cyclic voltammetry was used to further support the experiments. We have found that neither the pure nor the widely dispersed monolayers of mannosides provide the conditions for optimal binding of Con A. The binding of Con A to these SAMs is sensitive to the molar ratio of the mannoside used to prepare the SAM and to the structure of the mannoside. A simple cleaning method has also been shown to regenerate the used gold wire electrodes. The results from these experiments contribute to the development of simple, cheap, selective, and sensitive EIS-based bioassays, especially for lectin-carbohydrate interactions.

Selective capture of glycoproteins using lectin-modified nanoporous gold monolith.

The surface of nanoporous gold (np-Au) monoliths was modified via a flow method with the lectin Concanavalin A (Con A) to develop a substrate for separation and extraction of glycoproteins. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of α-lipoic acid (LA) on the np-Au monoliths were prepared followed by activation of the terminal carboxyl groups to create amine reactive esters that were utilized in the immobilization of Con A. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to determine the surface coverages of LA and Con A on np-Au monoliths which were found to be 1.31×10(18) and 1.85×10(15)moleculesm(-2), respectively. An in situ solution depletion method was developed that enabled surface coverage characterization without damaging the substrate and suggesting the possibility of regeneration. Using this method, the surface coverages of LA and Con A were found to be 0.989×10(18) and 1.32×10(15)moleculesm(-2), respectively. The selectivity of the Con A-modified np-Au monolith for the high mannose-containing glycoprotein ovalbumin (OVA) versus negative control non-glycosylated bovine serum albumin (BSA) was demonstrated by the difference in the ratio of the captured molecules to the immobilized Con A molecules, with OVA:Con A=2.3 and BSA:Con A=0.33. Extraction of OVA from a 1:3 mole ratio mixture with BSA was demonstrated by the greater amount of depletion of OVA concentration during the circulation with the developed substrate. A significant amount of captured OVA was eluted using α-methyl mannopyranoside as a competitive ligand. This work is motivated by the need to develop new materials for chromatographic separation and extraction substrates for use in preparative and analytical procedures in glycomics.

The influence of gold surface texture on microglia morphology and activation.

Microglial cells play a critical role in the propagation of neuroinflammation in the central nervous system. Microglia sense and respond to environmental signals including chemical, physical and biological cues from the surrounding cell/tissue components. In this project, our goal was to examine the effects of surface texture on BV-2 microglia morphology and function by comparing flat and nanoporous gold (np-Au) surfaces to the more conventional glass. The biocompatibility of np-Au with microglia was evaluated using functional cell assays and high resolution imaging with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Microglia seeded on glass, ultra-flat gold (UF-Au), ultra-thin (UT) np-Au and np-Au monolith were adherent to all surfaces and their viability was not compromised as assessed by multiple toxicity assays. SEM revealed detailed morphological characteristics of adherent microglia and indicated few dramatic changes as a result of the different surfaces. Microglia proliferation was hampered by np-Au monolith but less by UT np-Au and not at all on UF-Au or glass. Microglial activation, measured by tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) production, was fully functional (and equivalent) on all gold surfaces compared to glass. The present findings should help further the understanding of basic microglia biology on textured surfaces and more fully evaluate np-Au as a multi-functional biocompatible material. The knowledge obtained and technology developed will have a significant impact in the fabrication of nanoelectronic devices, chemical sensor development, porous nanostructured materials for BioMEMs/NEMs integration, and functional biomaterial coatings for drug delivery.

Electrochemical characterization of globotriose-containing self-assembled monolayers on nanoporous gold and their binding of soybean agglutinin.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of α-D-Gal-(1→4)-ß-D-Gal-(1→4)-ß-D-Glc-mercaptooctane (globotriose, Gb3-C8-SH) were prepared both as single-component SAMs and as mixed SAMs with either octanethiol (OCT) or 8-mercapto-3,6-dioxaoctanol (HO-PEG2-SH), on flat gold and on nanoporous gold (NPG) electrodes. The binding of soybean agglutinin (SBA) to the globotriose (Gb3) unit in the SAMs was then studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), which is a label free method found to be quite sensitive to SAM composition and to the differences in SAM structure on NPG versus on flat Au. The affinity of SBA to the mixed SAM of HO-PEG2-SH and Gb3-C8-SH on NPG is found to be greater on NPG than on flat gold, and indicates a potential advantage for NPG as a substrate. The SAMs of HO-PEG2-SH were found to resist protein adsorption on either NPG or flat gold. The non-specific adsorption of SBA to OCT SAMs on flat Au was observed in EIS by the increase in charge transfer resistance; whereas, the increase seen on the NPG surface was smaller, and suggests that EIS measurements on NPG are less affected by non-specific protein adsorption. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of the SBA binding to mixed SAM of HO-PEG2-SH and Gb3-C8-SH on NPG showed a greater number of proteins on top of the OCT containing SAMs.

Lectin-carbohydrate interactions on nanoporous gold monoliths.

Monoliths of nanoporous gold (np-Au) were modified with self-assembled monolayers of octadecanethiol (C18-SH), 8-mercaptooctyl α-D-mannopyranoside (αMan-C8-SH), and 8-mercapto-3,6-dioxaoctanol (HO-PEG2-SH), and the loading was assessed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Modification with mixed SAMs containing αMan-C8-SH (at a 0.20 mole fraction in the SAM forming solution) with either octanethiol or HO-PEG2-SH was also investigated. The np-Au monoliths modified with αMan-C8-SH bind the lectin Concanavalin A (Con A), and the additional mass due to bound protein was assessed using TGA analysis. A comparison of TGA traces measured before and after exposure of HO-PEG2-SH modified np-Au to Con A showed that the non-specific binding of Con A was minimal. In contrast, np-Au modified with octanethiol showed a significant mass loss due to non-specifically adsorbed Con A. A significant mass loss was also attributed to binding of Con A to bare np-Au monoliths. TGA revealed a mass loss due to the binding of Con A to np-Au monoliths modified with pure αMan-C8-SH. The use of mass losses determined by TGA to compare the binding of Con A to np-Au monoliths modified by mixed SAMs of αMan-C8-SH and either octanethiol or HO-PEG2-SH revealed that binding to mixed SAM modified surfaces is specific for the mixed SAMs with HO-PEG2-SH but shows a significant contribution from non-specific adsorption for the mixed SAMs with octanethiol. Minimal adsorption of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and peanut agglutinin (PNA) towards the mannoside modified np-Au monoliths was demonstrated. A greater mass loss was found for Con A bound onto the monolith than for either IgG or PNA, signifying that the mannose presenting SAMs in np-Au retain selectivity for Con A. TGA data also provide evidence that Con A bound to the αMan-C8-SH modified np-Au can be eluted by flowing a solution of methyl α-D-mannopyranoside through the structure. The presence of Con A proteins on the modified np-Au surface was also confirmed using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results highlight the potential for application of carbohydrate modified np-Au monoliths to glycoscience and glycotechnology and demonstrate that they can be used for capture and release of carbohydrate binding proteins in significant quantities.

Comparative Study of the Binding of Concanavalin A to Self-Assembled Monolayers Containing a Thiolated α-Mannoside on Flat Gold and on Nanoporous Gold.

We have prepared SAMs containing 8-mercaptooctyl α-D-mannopyranoside, either as a single component or in mixed SAMs with n-octanethiol on flat gold surfaces and on nanoporous gold. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy showed that the mixed SAMs on flat gold surfaces showed the highest Con A binding near 1:9 solution molar ratio of thiolatedα-mannoside to n-octanethiol whereas those on NPG showed the highest response at 1:19 solution molar ratio of thiolated α-mannoside to n-octanethiol. Atomic force microscopy was employed to image the monolayers, and also to image the bound Con A protein.

HPLC-assisted automated oligosaccharide synthesis.

A standard HPLC was adapted to polymer supported oligosaccharide synthesis. Solution-based reagents are delivered using a software-controlled solvent delivery system. The reaction progress and completion can be monitored in real time using a standard UV detector. All steps of oligosaccharide assembly including loading, glycosylation, deprotection, and cleavage can be performed using this setup.

Surface area and pore size characteristics of nanoporous gold subjected to thermal, mechanical, or surface modification studied using gas adsorption isotherms, cyclic voltammetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy.

Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms are used to investigate the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) surface area and Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) pore size distribution of physically modified, thermally annealed, and octadecanethiol functionalized np-Au monoliths. We present the full adsorption-desorption isotherms for N(2) gas on np-Au, and observe type IV isotherms and type H1 hysteresis loops. The evolution of the np-Au under various thermal annealing treatments was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The images of both the exterior and interior of the thermally annealed np-Au show that the porosity of all free standing np-Au structures decreases as the heat treatment temperature increases. The modification of the np-Au surface with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of C(18)-SH (coverage of 2.94 × 10(14) molecules cm(-2) based from the decomposition of the C(18)-SH using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)), was found to reduce the strength of the interaction of nitrogen gas with the np-Au surface, as reflected by a decrease in the 'C' parameter of the BET equation. From cyclic voltammetry studies, we found that the surface area of the np-Au monoliths annealed at elevated temperatures followed the same trend with annealing temperature as found in the BET surface area study and SEM morphology characterization. The study highlights the ability to control free-standing nanoporous gold monoliths with high surface area, and well-defined, tunable pore morphology.

Reverse orthogonal strategy for oligosaccharide synthesis.

Herein, we report the invention of a novel expeditious concept for oligosaccharide synthesis. Unlike the classic orthogonal strategy based on leaving groups, the reverse approach is based on orthogonal protecting groups, herein p-methoxybenzyl and 4-pentenoyl, which allows for efficient oligosaccharide assembly in the reverse direction.

Characterization of protein immobilization on nanoporous gold using atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.

Nanoporous gold (NPG), made by dealloying low carat gold alloys, is a relatively new nanomaterial finding application in catalysis, sensing, and as a support for biomolecules. NPG has attracted considerable interest due to its open bicontinuous structure, high surface-to-volume ratio, tunable porosity, chemical stability and biocompatibility. NPG also has the attractive feature of being able to be modified by self-assembled monolayers. Here we use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to characterize a highly efficient approach for protein immobilization on NPG using N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester functionalized self-assembled monolayers on NPG with pore sizes in the range of tens of nanometres. Comparison of coupling under static versus flow conditions suggests that BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) and IgG (Immunoglobulin G) can only be immobilized onto the interior surfaces of free standing NPG monoliths with good coverage under flow conditions. AFM is used to examine protein coverage on both the exterior and interior of protein modified NPG. Access to the interior surface of NPG for AFM imaging is achieved using a special procedure for cleaving NPG. AFM is also used to examine BSA immobilized on rough gold surfaces as a comparative study. In principle, the general approach described should be applicable to many enzymes, proteins and protein complexes since both pore sizes and functional groups present on the NPG surfaces are controllable.

A nanoengineering approach for investigation and regulation of protein immobilization.

It is known that protein attachment to surfaces depends sensitively upon the local structure and environment of the binding sites at the nanometer scale. Using nanografting and reversal nanografting, both atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based lithography techniques, protein binding sites with well-defined local environments are designed and engineered with nanometer precision. Three proteins, goat antibiotin immunoglobulin G (IgG), lysozyme, and rabbit immunoglobulin G, are immobilized onto these engineered surfaces. Strong dependence on the dimension and spatial distribution of protein binding sites are revealed in antibody recognition, covalent attachment via primary amine residues and surface-bound aldehyde groups. This investigation indicates that AFM-based nanolithography enables the production of protein nanostructures, and more importantly, protein-surface interactions at a molecular level can be regulated by changing the binding domains and their local environment at nanometer scale.

Structural characterization of aldehyde-terminated self-assembled monolayers.

The structure of aldehyde-terminated alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on Au(111) is investigated using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. For the first time, the structures of aldehyde-terminated SAMs are revealed with molecular resolution. SAMs of 11-mercapto-1-undecanal exhibit the basic (radical3xradical3)R30 degrees periodicity and form various c(4x2) superstructures upon annealing. In conjunction with DFT studies, the models of the (radical3xradical3)R30 degrees and the c(4x2) superstructures are constructed. In comparison with alkanethiol SAMs, the introduction of aldehyde-termini results in smaller domain size, lower degree of long-range order, large coverage of disordered areas, and higher density of missing molecules and other point defects within domains of closely packed molecules. The origin of these structural differences is mainly attributed to the strong dipole-dipole interactions among the aldehyde termini.

A nanoengineering approach to regulate the lateral heterogeneity of self-assembled monolayers.

Using a scanning probe lithography method known as nanografting in conjunction with knowledge of self-assembly chemistry, regulation of the heterogeneity of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is demonstrated. While nanografting in single-component thiols produces areas of SAMs with designed geometry and size, nanofabrication in mixed thiol solution yields segregated domains. The reaction mechanism in nanografting differs significantly from self-assembly in mix-and-grow methods, as proven in systematic studies reported in this article and a companion paper of theoretical calculations of the nanografting process. Knowledge of the reaction pathways enables development of methods for shifting the interplay between the kinetics and thermodynamics in SAM formation, and thus the heterogeneity of mixed SAMs. By varying fabrication parameters, such as shaving speed, and reaction conditions, such as concentration and ratio of the components, the lateral heterogeneity can be adjusted ranging from near molecular mixing to segregated domains of several to tens of nanometers.