Using the fluorescent properties of STO-609 as a tool to assist structure-function analyses of recombinant CaMKK2.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) has been implicated in the regulation of metabolic activity in cancer and immune cells, and affects whole-body metabolism by regulating ghrelin-signalling in the hypothalamus. This has led to efforts to develop specific CaMKK2 inhibitors, and STO-609 is the standardly used CaMKK2 inhibitor to date. We have developed a novel fluorescence-based assay by exploiting the intrinsic fluorescence properties of STO-609. Here, we report an in vitro binding constant of KD ∼17 nM between STO-609 and purified CaMKK2 or CaMKK2:Calmodulin complex. Whereas high concentrations of ATP were able to displace STO-609 from the kinase, GTP was unable to achieve this confirming the specificity of this association. Recent structural studies on the kinase domain of CaMKK2 had implicated a number of amino acids involved in the binding of STO-609. Our fluorescent assay enabled us to confirm that Phe(267) is critically important for this association since mutation of this residue to a glycine abolished the binding of STO-609. An ATP replacement assay, as well as the mutation of the 'gatekeeper' amino acid Phe(267)Gly, confirmed the specificity of the assay and once more confirmed the strong binding of STO-609 to the kinase. In further characterising the purified kinase and kinase-calmodulin complex we identified a number of phosphorylation sites some of which corroborated previously reported CaMKK2 phosphorylation and some of which, particularly in the activation segment, were novel phosphorylation events. In conclusion, the intrinsic fluorescent properties of STO-609 provide a great opportunity to utilise this drug to label the ATP-binding pocket and probe the impact of mutations and other regulatory modifications and interactions on the pocket. It is however clear that the number of phosphorylation sites on CaMKK2 will pose a challenge in studying the impact of phosphorylation on the pocket unless the field can develop approaches to control the spectrum of modifications that occur during recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli.

Phenotypic profiling of the human genome reveals gene products involved in plasma membrane targeting of SRC kinases.

SRC proteins are non-receptor tyrosine kinases that play key roles in regulating signal transduction by a diverse set of cell surface receptors. They contain N-terminal SH4 domains that are modified by fatty acylation and are functioning as membrane anchors. Acylated SH4 domains are both necessary and sufficient to mediate specific targeting of SRC kinases to the inner leaflet of plasma membranes. Intracellular transport of SRC kinases to the plasma membrane depends on microdomains into which SRC kinases partition upon palmitoylation. In the present study, we established a live-cell imaging screening system to identify gene products involved in plasma membrane targeting of SRC kinases. Based on siRNA arrays and a human model cell line expressing two kinds of SH4 reporter molecules, we conducted a genome-wide analysis of SH4-dependent protein targeting using an automated microscopy platform. We identified and validated 54 gene products whose down-regulation causes intracellular retention of SH4 reporter molecules. To detect and quantify this phenotype, we developed a software-based image analysis tool. Among the identified gene products, we found factors involved in lipid metabolism, intracellular transport, and cellular signaling processes. Furthermore, we identified proteins that are either associated with SRC kinases or are related to various known functions of SRC kinases such as other kinases and phosphatases potentially involved in SRC-mediated signal transduction. Finally, we identified gene products whose function is less defined or entirely unknown. Our findings provide a major resource for future studies unraveling the molecular mechanisms that underlie proper targeting of SRC kinases to the inner leaflet of plasma membranes.

A high-throughput target-based screening approach for the identification and assessment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis mycothione reductase inhibitors.

The World Health Organization's goal to combat tuberculosis (TB) is hindered by the emergence of anti-microbial resistance, therefore necessitating the exploration of new drug targets. Multidrug regimens are indispensable in TB therapy as they provide synergetic bactericidal effects, shorten treatment duration, and reduce the risk of resistance development. The research within our European RespiriTB consortium explores Mycobacterium tuberculosis energy metabolism to identify new drug candidates that synergize with bedaquiline, with the aim of discovering more efficient combination drug regimens. In this study, we describe the development and validation of a luminescence-coupled, target-based assay for the identification of novel compounds inhibiting Mycobacterium tuberculosis mycothione reductase (MtrMtb), an enzyme with a role in the protection against oxidative stress. Recombinant MtrMtb was employed for the development of a highly sensitive, robust high-throughput screening (HTS) assay by coupling enzyme activity to a bioluminescent readout. Its application in a semi-automated setting resulted in the screening of a diverse library of ~130,000 compounds, from which 19 hits were retained after an assessment of their potency, selectivity, and specificity. The selected hits formed two clusters and four fragment molecules, which were further evaluated in whole-cell and intracellular infection assays. The established HTS discovery pipeline offers an opportunity to deliver novel MtrMtb inhibitors and lays the foundation for future efforts in developing robust biochemical assays for the identification and triaging of inhibitors from high-throughput library screens. IMPORTANCE: The growing anti-microbial resistance poses a global public health threat, impeding progress toward eradicating tuberculosis. Despite decades of active research, there is still a dire need for the discovery of drugs with novel modes of action and exploration of combination drug regimens. Within the European RespiriTB consortium, we explore Mycobacterium tuberculosis energy metabolism to identify new drug candidates that synergize with bedaquiline, with the aim of discovering more efficient combination drug regimens. In this study, we present the development of a high-throughput screening pipeline that led to the identification of M. tuberculosis mycothione reductase inhibitors.

Backbone 1H, 13C and 15N resonance assignment of the ubiquitin specific protease 7 catalytic domain (residues 208-554) in complex with a small molecule ligand.

The backbone 1H, 13C and 15N resonance assignment of Ubiquitin Specific Protease 7 catalytic domain (residues 208-554) was performed in its complex with a small molecule ligand and in its apo form as a reference. The amide 1H-15N signal intensities were boosted by an amide hydrogen exchange protocol, where expressed 2H, 13C, 15N-labeled protein was unfolded and re-folded to ensure exchange of amide deuterons to protons. The resonance assignments were used to determine chemical shift perturbations on ligand binding, which are consistent with the binding site observed by crystallography.

A flexible, image-based, high-throughput platform encompassing in-depth cell profiling to identify broad-spectrum coronavirus antivirals with limited off-target effects.

The recent pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) posed a major threat to global health. Although the World Health Organization ended the public health emergency status, antiviral drugs are needed to address new variants of SARS-CoV-2 and future pandemics. To identify novel broad-spectrum coronavirus drugs, we developed a high-content imaging platform compatible with high-throughput screening. The platform is broadly applicable as it can be adapted to include various cell types, viruses, antibodies, and dyes. We demonstrated that the antiviral activity of compounds against SARS-CoV-2 variants (Omicron BA.5 and Omicron XBB.1.5), SARS-CoV, and human coronavirus 229E could easily be assessed. The inclusion of cellular dyes and immunostaining in combination with in-depth image analysis enabled us to identify compounds that induced undesirable phenotypes in host cells, such as changes in cell morphology or in lysosomal activity. With the platform, we screened ∼900K compounds and triaged hits, thereby identifying potential candidate compounds carrying broad-spectrum activity with limited off-target effects. The flexibility and early-stage identification of compounds with limited host cell effects provided by this high-content imaging platform can facilitate coronavirus drug discovery. We anticipate that its rapid deployability and fast turnaround can also be applied to combat future pandemics.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2)-dependent oligomerization of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) triggers the formation of a lipidic membrane pore implicated in unconventional secretion.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a critical mitogen with a central role in specific steps of tumor-induced angiogenesis. It is known to be secreted by unconventional means bypassing the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi-dependent secretory pathway. However, the mechanism of FGF2 membrane translocation into the extracellular space has remained elusive. Here, we show that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-dependent membrane recruitment causes FGF2 to oligomerize, which in turn triggers the formation of a lipidic membrane pore with a putative toroidal structure. This process is strongly up-regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation of FGF2. Our findings explain key requirements of FGF2 secretion from living cells and suggest a novel self-sustained mechanism of protein translocation across membranes with a lipidic membrane pore being a transient translocation intermediate.

Identification of Z-Tyr-Ala-CHN2, a Cathepsin L Inhibitor with Broad-Spectrum Cell-Specific Activity against Coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is partly under control by vaccination. However, highly potent and safe antiviral drugs for SARS-CoV-2 are still needed to avoid development of severe COVID-19. We report the discovery of a small molecule, Z-Tyr-Ala-CHN2, which was identified in a cell-based antiviral screen. The molecule exerts sub-micromolar antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-1, and human coronavirus 229E. Time-of-addition studies reveal that Z-Tyr-Ala-CHN2 acts at the early phase of the infection cycle, which is in line with the observation that the molecule inhibits cathepsin L. This results in antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in VeroE6, A549-hACE2, and HeLa-hACE2 cells, but not in Caco-2 cells or primary human nasal epithelial cells since the latter two cell types also permit entry via transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2). Given their cell-specific activity, cathepsin L inhibitors still need to prove their value in the clinic; nevertheless, the activity profile of Z-Tyr-Ala-CHN2 makes it an interesting tool compound for studying the biology of coronavirus entry and replication.

Binding of plasma membrane lipids recruits the yeast integral membrane protein Ist2 to the cortical ER.

Recruitment of cytosolic proteins to individual membranes is governed by a combination of protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions. Many proteins recognize phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)] at the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane (PM). Here, we show that a protein-lipid interaction can also serve as a dominant signal for the sorting of integral membrane proteins. Interaction with phosphatidly-inositolphosphates (PIPs) at the PM is involved in the targeting of the polytopic yeast protein Ist2 to PM-associated domains of the cortical endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Moreover, binding of PI(4,5)P(2) at the PM functions as a dominant mechanism that targets other integral membrane proteins to PM-associated domains of the cortical ER. This sorting to a subdomain of the ER abolishes proteasomal degradation and trafficking along the classical secretory (sec) pathway. In combination with the localization of IST2 mRNA to the bud tip and other redundant signals in Ist2, binding of PIPs leads to efficient accumulation of Ist2 at domains of the cortical ER from where the protein may reach the PM independently of the function of the sec-pathway.

A conserved, lipid-mediated sorting mechanism of yeast Ist2 and mammalian STIM proteins to the peripheral ER.

Sorting of yeast Ist2 to the plasma membrane (PM) or the cortical endoplasmic reticulum (ER) requires a cortical sorting signal (CSS(Ist2)) that interacts with lipids including phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)) at the PM. Here, we show that the expression of Ist2 in mammalian cells resulted in a peripheral patch-like localization without any detection of Ist2 at the cell surface. Attached to C-termini of mammalian integral membrane proteins, the CSS(Ist2) targeted these proteins to PM-associated domains of the ER and abolished trafficking via the classical secretory pathway. The interaction of integral membrane proteins with PI(4,5)P(2) at the PM created ER-PM contacts. This process is similar to the regulated coupling of ER domains to the PM via stromal interaction molecule (STIM) proteins during store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE). The CSS(Ist2) and the C-terminus of the ER-located Ca(2+) sensor STIM2 were sufficient to bind PI(4,5)P(2) and PI(3,4,5)P(3) at the PM, showing that an evolutionarily conserved mechanism is involved in the sorting of integral membrane proteins to PM-associated domains of the ER. Yeast Ist2 and STIM2 share a common basic and amphipathic signal at their extreme C-termini. STIM1 showed binding preference for liposomes containing PI(4,5)P(2), suggesting a specific contribution of lipids to the recruitment of ER domains to the PM during SOCE.

An intrinsic quality-control mechanism ensures unconventional secretion of fibroblast growth factor 2 in a folded conformation.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a proangiogenic mitogen that is secreted by an unconventional mechanism, which does not depend on a functional ER-Golgi system. FGF2 is first recruited to the inner leaflet of plasma membranes, in a process that is mediated by the phosphoinositide PtdIns(4,5)P(2). On the extracellular side, membrane-proximal FGF2-binding sites provided by heparan-sulfate proteoglycans are essential for trapping and accumulating FGF2 in the extracellular space. Here we demonstrate that FGF2 membrane translocation can occur in a folded conformation, i.e. unfolded molecules are not obligatory intermediates in FGF2 secretion. Furthermore, we find that initial sorting into its export pathway requires FGF2 to be folded, because the interaction with PtdIns(4,5)P(2) is lost upon unfolding of FGF2. Our combined findings suggest an intrinsic quality-control mechanism that ensures extracellular accumulation of FGF2 in a biologically active form.

A direct role for phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate in unconventional secretion of fibroblast growth factor 2.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is a mitogen that is exported from cells by an endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi-independent secretory pathway. Recent findings have shown that FGF-2 export occurs by direct translocation from the cytoplasm across the plasma membrane into the extracellular space. Here, we report that FGF-2 contains a binding site for phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)], the principal phosphoinositide species associated with plasma membranes. Intriguingly, in the context of a lipid bilayer, the interaction between FGF-2 and PI(4,5)P(2) is shown to depend on a lipid background that resembles plasma membranes. We show that the interaction with PI(4,5)P(2) is critically important for FGF-2 secretion as experimental conditions reducing cellular levels of PI(4,5)P(2) resulted in a substantial drop in FGF-2 export efficiency. Likewise, we have identified FGF-2 variant forms deficient for binding to PI(4,5)P(2) that were found to be severely impaired with regard to export efficiency. These data show that a transient interaction with PI(4,5)P(2) associated with the inner leaflet of plasma membranes represents the initial step of the unconventional secretory pathway of FGF-2.

Data for the co-expression and purification of human recombinant CaMKK2 in complex with calmodulin in Escherichia coli.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) has been implicated in a range of conditions and pathologies from prostate to hepatic cancer. Here, we describe the expression in Escherichia coli and the purification protocol for the following constructs: full-length CaMKK2 in complex with CaM, CaMKK2 'apo', CaMKK2 (165-501) in complex with CaM, and the CaMKK2 F267G mutant. The protocols described have been optimized for maximum yield and purity with minimal purification steps required and the proteins subsequently used to develop a fluorescence-based assay for drug binding to the kinase, "Using the fluorescent properties of STO-609 as a tool to assist structure-function analyses of recombinant CaMKK2" [1].

Death-Associated Protein Kinase Activity Is Regulated by Coupled Calcium/Calmodulin Binding to Two Distinct Sites.

The regulation of many protein kinases by binding to calcium/calmodulin connects two principal mechanisms in signaling processes: protein phosphorylation and responses to dose- and time-dependent calcium signals. We used the calcium/calmodulin-dependent members of the death-associated protein kinase (DAPK) family to investigate the role of a basic DAPK signature loop near the kinase active site. In DAPK2, this loop comprises a novel dimerization-regulated calcium/calmodulin-binding site, in addition to a well-established calcium/calmodulin site in the C-terminal autoregulatory domain. Unexpectedly, impairment of the basic loop interaction site completely abolishes calcium/calmodulin binding and DAPK2 activity is reduced to a residual level, indicative of coupled binding to the two sites. This contrasts with the generally accepted view that kinase calcium/calmodulin interactions are autonomous of the kinase catalytic domain. Our data establish an intricate model of multi-step kinase activation and expand our understanding of how calcium binding connects with other mechanisms involved in kinase activity regulation.

A PEF/Y substrate recognition and signature motif plays a critical role in DAPK-related kinase activity.

Knowledge about protein kinase substrate preferences is biased toward residues immediately adjacent to the site of phosphorylation. By a combined structural, biochemical, and cellular approach, we have discovered an unexpected substrate recognition element with the consensus sequence PEF/Y in the tumor suppressor death-associated protein kinase 1. This motif can be effectively blocked by a specific pseudosubstrate-type interaction with an autoregulatory domain of this kinase. In this arrangement, the central PEF/Y glutamate interacts with a conserved arginine distant to the phosphorylation site in sequence and structure. We also demonstrate that the element is crucial for kinase activity regulation and substrate recognition. The PEF/Y motif distinguishes close death-associated protein kinase relatives from canonical calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases. Insight into this signature and mode of action offers new opportunities to identify specific small molecule inhibitors in PEF/Y-containing protein kinases.

Development of accessible peptidic tool compounds to study the phosphatase PTP1B in intact cells.

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) play crucial roles in health and disease. Chemical modulators of their activity are vital tools to study their function. An important aspect is the accessibility of these tools, which is usually limited or not existent due to the required, often complex synthesis of the molecules. We describe here a strategy for the development of cellular active inhibitors and in-cell detection tools for PTP1B as a model PTP, which plays important roles in diabetes, obesity, and cancer. The tool compounds are based on a peptide sequence from PTP1B's substrate Src, and the resulting compounds are commercially accessible through standard peptide synthesis. The peptide inhibitor is remarkably selective against a panel of PTPs. We provide the co-crystal structure of PTP1B with the sequence from Src and the optimized peptide inhibitor, showing the molecular basis of the interaction of PTP1B with part of its natural substrate and explaining the crucial interactions to enhance binding affinity, which are made possible by simple optimization of the sequence. Our approach enables the broad accessibility of PTP1B tools to researchers and has the potential for the systematic development of accessible PTP modulators to enable the study of PTPs.

Structural and functional diversity in the activity and regulation of DAPK-related protein kinases.

Within the large group of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CAMKs) of the human kinome, there is a distinct branch of highly related kinases that includes three families: death-associated protein-related kinases, myosin light-chain-related kinases and triple functional domain protein-related kinases. In this review, we refer to these collectively as DMT kinases. There are several functional features that span the three families, such as a broad involvement in apoptotic processes, cytoskeletal association and cellular plasticity. Other CAMKs contain a highly conserved HRD motif, which is a prerequisite for kinase regulation through activation-loop phosphorylation, but in all 16 members of the DMT branch, this is replaced by an HF/LD motif. This DMT kinase signature motif substitutes phosphorylation-dependent active-site interactions with a local hydrophobic core that maintains an active kinase conformation. Only about half of the DMT kinases have an additional autoregulatory domain, C-terminal to the kinase domain that binds calcium/calmodulin in order to regulate kinase activity. Protein substrates have been identified for some of the DMT kinases, but little is known about the mechanism of recognition. Substrate conformation could be an equally important parameter in substrate recognition as specific preferences in sequence position. Taking the data together, this kinase branch encapsulates a treasure trove of features that renders it distinct from many other protein kinases and calls for future research activities in this field.

A novel flow cytometric assay to quantify interactions between proteins and membrane lipids.

A diverse set of experimental systems has been developed to probe protein-lipid interactions. These include measurements with the headgroups of membrane lipids in solution, immobilized membrane lipids, and analysis of protein binding to membrane lipids reconstituted in liposomes. Each of these methodologies has strengths but also substantial limitations. For example, measurements between proteins and lipid headgroups or with immobilized membrane lipids do not probe interactions in their natural environment, the lipid bilayer. The use of liposomes, however, was so far mostly restricted to biochemical flotation experiments that do not provide quantitative and/or kinetic data. Here, we present a fast and sensitive flow cytometric method to detect protein-lipid interactions. This technique allows for quantitative measurements of interactions between multiple fluorescently labeled proteins and membrane lipids reconstituted in lipid bilayers. The assay can be used to quantify binding efficiencies and to determine kinetic constants. The method is further characterized by a short sampling time of only a few seconds that allows for high-content screening procedures. Finally, using light scatter measurements, the described method also allows for monitoring changes of membrane curvature as well as tethering of liposomes evoked by binding of proteins.

A signal comprising a basic cluster and an amphipathic alpha-helix interacts with lipids and is required for the transport of Ist2 to the yeast cortical ER.

The yeast integral membrane protein Ist2 is encoded by a bud-localised mRNA and accumulates at patch-like domains of the cell periphery, either at the cortical ER or at ER-associated domains of the plasma membrane. Transport of IST2 mRNA and local protein synthesis are not prerequisite for this localisation, indicating that Ist2 can travel through the general ER to membranes at the cell periphery. Here, we describe that the accumulation of Ist2 at the cortical ER requires a cytosolically exposed complex sorting signal that can interact with lipids at the yeast plasma membrane. Binding of the Ist2 sorting signal to lipids and rapid and efficient transport of Ist2 from perinuclear to cortical ER depend on a cluster of lysine residues, the formation of an amphipathic alpha-helix and a patch of hydrophobic side chains positioned at one side of the amphipathic alpha-helix. We suggest that a direct interaction of the Ist2 sorting signal with lipids at the plasma membrane places Ist2 at contact sites between cortical ER and plasma membrane. This provides a physical link of an integral membrane protein of the cortical ER with the plasma membrane and might allow direct transport of proteins from cortical ER to domains of the plasma membrane.

Novel lectin-like bacteriocins of biocontrol strain Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5.

Bacteriocin LlpA, produced by Pseudomonas sp. strain BW11M1, is a peculiar antibacterial protein due to its homology to mannose-binding lectins mostly found in monocots (A. H. A. Parret, G. Schoofs, P. Proost, and R. De Mot, J. Bacteriol. 185:897-908, 2003). Biocontrol strain Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5 contains two llpA-like genes, named llpA1(Pf-5) and llpA2(Pf-5). Recombinant Escherichia coli cells expressing llpA1(Pf-5) or llpA2(Pf-5) acquired bacteriocin activity and secreted a 31-kDa protein cross-reacting with LlpA(BW11M1) antibodies. Antibacterial activity of the recombinant proteins was evidenced by gel overlay assays. Analysis of the antimicrobial spectrum indicated that LlpA1(Pf-5) and LlpA2(Pf-5) are able to inhibit P. fluorescens strains, as well as the related mushroom pathogen Pseudomonas tolaasii. LlpA-type bacteriocins are characterized by a domain structure consisting of tandem monocot mannose-binding lectin (MMBL) domains. Molecular phylogeny of these MMBL domains suggests that the individual MMBL domains within an LlpA protein have evolved separately toward a specific, as yet unknown, function or, alternatively, were acquired from different ancestral sources. Our observations are consistent with earlier observations, which hinted that MMBL-like bacteriocins represent a new family of antibacterial proteins, probably with a novel mode of action.