Thermodynamics of Metal Carbonates and Bicarbonates and Their Hydrates for Mg, Ca, Fe, and Cd Relevant to Mineral Energetics.

The heats of formation of the carbonate, bicarbonate, and bicarbonate/hydroxide metal complexes, including hydrates of Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, and Cd2+, and the oxides, dichlorides, and dihydroxides are predicted from atomization energies using correlated molecular orbital theory at the CCSD(T) level extrapolated to the complete basis set limit following the Feller-Peterson-Dixon (FPD) approach. Using the calculated gas phase values and the available experimental solid-state values, we predicted the cohesive energies of selective minerals. The gas phase decomposition energies of MO, CO2, and H2O follow the order Mg ≈ Ca > Cd ≈ Fe and correlate with the hardness of the metal +2 ions. Gas phase hydration energies show that the order is Mg > Fe > Ca ≈ Cd. There are a number of bulk hydrated Mg and Ca complexes that occur as minerals but there are few if any for Fe and Cd, suggesting that a number of factors are important in determining the stability of the bulk mineral hydrates. The FPD heats of formation were used to benchmark a range of density functional theory exchange-correlation functionals, including those commonly used in solid-state mineral calculations. None of the functionals provided chemical accuracy agreement (±1 kcal/mol) with the FPD results. The best agreement to the FPD results is predicted for ωB97X and ωB97X-D functionals with an average unsigned error of 10 kcal/mol. The worst functionals are PW91, BP86, and PBE with average unsigned errors of 32-36 kcal/mol.

Thorium and Uranium Hydride Phosphorus and Arsenic Bearing Molecules with Single and Double Actinide-Pnictogen and Bridged Agostic Hydrogen Bonds.

Thorium atoms from laser ablation react with phosphine during condensation in excess argon to produce two new infrared absorptions at 1467.2 and 1436.6 cm-1 near weak bands for ThH and ThH2, which increase on annealing to 25 and 30 K, indicating spontaneous reactions. Analogous experiments with uranium produced two similar bands at 1473.4 and 1456.7 cm-1 above UH at 1423.8 cm-1 and another absorption at 1388.2 cm-1. Electronic structure calculations at the coupled cluster CCSD(T) for Th and density functional theory calculations for U as well as their proximity to other actinide hydride absorptions support assignments of these bands to the simplest molecules HP═ThH2, HP═UH2, and PH2-UH. Arsine gave the analogous products HAs═ThH2, HAs═UH2, and AsH2-UH. The HE═AnH2 molecules (E = P, As; An = Th, U) have strong agostic An-H(E) interactions with H-E-An angles in the range of 60-64°. The calculated agostic bond distances are 9% to 12% longer than terminal single An-H bonds, which suggests that these strong agostic bonds can be considered as bridge bonds since similar relationships are found for the dibridged M2H6 molecules (M = Al, Ga, In). The NBO analysis and the molecular orbitals show the presence of a σ and a π bond for HE═AnH2 molecules that are heavily polarized with most of the density on the P or As.

Energetic Properties and Electronic Structure of [C,N,O,P] and [C,N,S,P] Isomers.

Correlated molecular orbital theory at the coupled cluster CCSD(T) level with augmented correlation consistent basis sets including F12 explicit correlation has been used to predict the structure and energetic properties of the isomers of [C,N,O,P] and [C,N,S,P]. The predicted ground states are the species derived from a trivalent P with a P═O or P═S bond and a cyano group bonded to the P. The other low energy isomers are the isonitriles and they are 1.4 kcal/mol and 6.6 less stable than the ground state for P═O and P═S, respectively. An analysis of the bond energies is provided and the values are compared to the corresponding [N,N,C,O] isomers. Data are provided for searching for these species in interstellar regions.

Properties of Lanthanide Hydroxide Molecules Produced in Reactions of Lanthanide Atoms with H2O2 and H2 + O2 Mixtures: Roles of the +I, +II, +III, and +IV Oxidation States.

The reactions of laser-ablated lanthanide metal atoms with hydrogen peroxide or hydrogen plus oxygen mixtures have been studied experimentally in a solid argon matrix and theoretically with the ab initio MP2 and CCSD(T) methods. The Ln(OH)3 and Ln(OH)2 molecules and Ln(OH)2+ cations are the major products, and the reactions to form those hydroxides are predicted to be highly exothermic at the CCSD(T) level. Vibronic interactions are hypothesized to contribute to the abnormalities in deuterium shifts for Ln-OH(D) stretching modes for several hydroxides, consistent with CASSCF calculations. Additional new absorptions were assigned as HLnO or LnOH and OLnOH molecules. The tetrahydroxides of Ce, Pr, and Tb have also been observed. These reactive intermediates were identified from their matrix infrared spectra by using D2O2, HD, D2, 16,18O2, and 18O2 isotopic substitution, by matching observed frequencies with values calculated by electronic structure methods, and by following the trends observed in frequencies going through different lanthanide metal hydroxide series across the periodic table. The lanthanides are in the +II oxidation state for Ln(OH)2 and are in the +III oxidation state for Ln(OH)3 and Ln(OH)2+.

Infrared Spectroscopic and Theoretical Studies on the OMF2 and OMF (M = Cr, Mo, W) Molecules in Solid Argon.

Group 6 metal oxide fluoride molecules in the form of OMF2 and OMF (M = Cr, Mo, W) were prepared via the reactions of laser-ablated metal atoms and OF2 in excess argon. Product identifications were performed by using infrared spectroscopy, 18OF2 samples, and electronic structure calculations. Reactions of group 6 metal atoms and OF2 resulted in the formation of ternary OCrF2, OMoF2, and OWF2 molecules with C2v symmetry in which the tetravalent metal center is coordinated by one oxygen and two fluorine atoms. Both OCrF2 and OMoF2 are computed to possess triplet ground states, and a closed shell singlet is the ground state for OWF2. Triatomic OCrF, OMoF, and OWF molecules were also observed during sample deposition. All three molecules were computed to have a bent geometry and quartet ground state. A bonding analysis showed that the OMF2 molecules have highly ionic M-F bonds. 3OCrF2 and 3OMoF2 have an M-O double bond composed of a σ bond and a π bond. 1OWF2 has an M-O triple bond consisting of a σ bond, a π bond, and a highly delocalized O lone pair forming the other π bond. The M-O bonds in the OMF compounds have triple-bond character for all three metals.

Properties of Cerium Hydroxides from Matrix Infrared Spectra and Electronic Structure Calculations.

Reactions of laser ablated cerium atoms with hydrogen peroxide or hydrogen and oxygen mixtures diluted in argon and condensed at 4 K produced the Ce(OH)3 and Ce(OH)2 molecules and Ce(OH)2(+) cation as major products. Additional minor products were identified as the Ce(OH)4, HCeO, and OCeOH molecules. These new species were identified from their matrix infrared spectra with D2O2, D2, and (18)O2 isotopic substitution and correlating observed frequencies with values calculated by density functional theory. We find that the amounts of Ce(OH)3 and of the Ce(OH)2(+) cation increase on UV (λ > 220 nm) photolysis, while Ce(OH)2, Ce(OH)4, and HCeO are photosensitive. The observed major species for Ce are in the +III or +II oxidation state, and the minor product, Ce(OH)4, is in the +IV oxidation state. The calculations for the vibrational frequencies with the B3LYP functional agree well with the experiment. The NBO analysis shows significant backbonding to the metal 4f and 5d orbitals for the closed shell species. Most open shell species have the excess spin in the 4f with paired spin in the 5d due to backbonding. The heats of formation of the observed species were derived from the available data from experiment and the calculated reaction energies. The major products in this study are different from similar reactions for Th where the tetrahydroxide was the major species.

In Situ Natural Abundance 17O and 25Mg NMR Investigation of Aqueous Mg(OH)2 Dissolution in the Presence of Supercritical CO2.

We report an in situ high-pressure NMR capability that permits natural abundance 17O and 25Mg NMR characterization of dissolved species in aqueous solution and in the presence of supercritical CO2 fluid (scCO2). The dissolution of Mg(OH)2 (brucite) in a multiphase water/scCO2 fluid at 90 atm pressure and 50 °C was studied in situ, with relevance to geological carbon sequestration. 17O NMR spectra allowed identification and distinction of various fluid species including dissolved CO2 in the H2O-rich phase, scCO2, aqueous H2O, and HCO3-. The widely separated spectral peaks for various species can all be observed both dynamically and quantitatively at concentrations as low as 20 mM. Measurement of the concentrations of these individual species also allows an in situ estimate of the hydrogen ion concentration, or pCH+ values, of the reacting solutions. The concentration of Mg2+ can be observed by natural abundance 25Mg NMR at a concentration as low as 10 mM. Quantum chemistry calculations of the NMR chemical shifts on cluster models aided in the interpretation of the experimental results. Evidence for the formation of polymeric Mg2+ clusters at high concentrations in the H2O-rich phase, a possible critical step needed for magnesium carbonate formation, was found.

Reaction of Laser-Ablated Uranium and Thorium Atoms with H2Se: A Rare Example of Selenium Multiple Bonding.

The compounds H2ThSe and H2USe were synthesized by the reaction of laser-ablated actinide metal atoms with H2Se under cryogenic conditions following the procedures used to synthesize H2AnX (An = Th, U; X = O, S). The molecules were characterized by infrared spectra in an argon matrix with the aid of deuterium substitution and electronic structure calculations at the density functional theory level. The main products, H2ThSe and H2USe, are shown to have a highly polarized actinide-selenium triple bond, as found for H2AnS on the basis of electronic structure calculations. There is an even larger back-bonding of the Se with the An than found for the corresponding sulfur compounds. These molecules are of special interest as rare examples of multiple bonding of selenium to a metal, particularly an actinide metal.

Gas Phase Properties of MX2 and MX4 (X = F, Cl) for M = Group 4, Group 14, Cerium, and Thorium.

Structures, vibrational frequencies, and heats of formation were predicted for MX4 and both singlet and triplet states of MX2 (M = group 4, group 14, Ce, and Th; X = F and Cl) using the Feller-Peterson-Dixon composite electronic structure approach based on coupled cluster CCSD(T) calculations extrapolated to the complete basis set limit with additional corrections including spin orbit effects. The spin-orbit corrections are not large but need to be included for chemical accuracy of ±1 kcal/mol. The singlet-triplet splittings were calculated for the dihalides and all compounds have singlet ground states except for the dihalides of Ti, Zr, and Ce which have triplet ground states. The calculated heats of formation are in good agreement with the available experimental data. Our predictions suggest that the experimental heats of formation need to be revised for a number of tetrahalides: TiF4, HfF4, PbF4, PbCl4, and ThCl4 as well as a number of dihalides: GeF2, SnF2, PbF2, TiF2, and TiCl2. The calculated heats of formation were used to predict various thermodynamic properties including average M-F and M-Cl bond dissociation energies and the reaction energies for MX2 + X2 → MX4. Edge inversion barriers were predicted. The calculated edge inversion barriers for the tetrafluorides show that the barriers for the group 14 tetrafluorides decrease with increasing atomic number, the group 4 barriers are ∼50 kcal/mol and CeF4 and ThF4 have inversion barriers of ∼25 kcal/mol.

Structures, vibrational frequencies, and stabilities of halogen cluster anions and cations, X(n)(+/-), n = 3, 4, and 5.

The structures, vibrational frequencies, and thermodynamic stabilities of the homonuclear polyhalogen ions, X3(+), X3(-), X4(+), X4(-), X5(+), and X5(-) (X = Cl, Br, I), have been calculated at the CCSD(T) level. The energetics were calculated using the Feller-Peterson-Dixon approach for the prediction of reliable enthalpies of formation. The calculations allow the following predictions where stabilities are defined in terms of thermodynamic quantities. (1) The X3(+) cations are stable toward loss of X2; (2) the X3(-) anions are marginally stable toward loss of X2 with Cl3(-) being the least stable; (3) the X4(+) cations and X4(-) anions are only weakly bound dimers of X2(+1/2) and X2(-1/2) units, respectively, but the cations are marginally stable toward decomposition to X3(+) and X, with I4(+) having the lowest dissociation energy, whereas the X4(-) anions decompose spontaneously to X3(-) and X; (4) the X5(+) cations are only marginally stable at low temperatures toward loss of X2, with Cl5(+) being the least stable; and (5) the X5(-) anions are also only stable at low temperatures toward loss of X2, with Cl5(-) being the least stable.

Properties of ThF(x) from infrared spectra in solid argon and neon with supporting electronic structure and thermochemical calculations.

Laser-ablated Th atoms react with F2 in condensing noble gases to give ThF4 as the major product. Weaker higher frequency infrared absorptions at 567.2, 564.8 (576.1, 573.8) cm(-1), 575.1 (582.7) cm(-1) and 531.0, (537.4) cm(-1) in solid argon (neon) are assigned to the ThF, ThF2 and ThF3 molecules based on annealing and photolysis behavior and agreement with CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVTZ vibrational frequency calculations. Bands at 528.4 cm(-1) and 460 cm(-1) with higher fluorine concentrations are assigned to the penta-coordinated species (ThF3)(F2) and ThF5(-). These bands shift to 544.2 and 464 cm(-1) in solid neon. The ThF5 molecule has the (ThF3)(F2) Cs structure and is essentially the unique [ThF3(+)][F2(-)] ion pair based on charge and spin density calculations. Electron capture by (ThF3)(F2) forms the trigonal bipyramidal ThF5(-) anion in a highly exothermic process. Extensive structure and frequency calculations were also done for thorium oxyfluorides and Th2F4,6,8 dimer species. The calculations provide the ionization potentials, electron affinities, fluoride affinities, Th-F bond dissociation energies, and the energies to bind F2 and F2(-) to a cluster as well as dimerization energies.

Infrared spectra of H2ThS and H2US in noble gas matrixes: enhanced H-An-S covalent bonding.

Laser-ablated thorium and uranium atoms have been co-deposited at 4 K with hydrogen sulfide in excess noble gas matrixes. The major dihydride sulfide reaction products were observed for each actinide and identified on the basis of S-34 and D isotopic substitution. These assignments were confirmed by frequency and structure calculations using density functional theory with the B3LYP and PW91 exchange-correlation functionals and the CCSD(T) method for the pyramidal H2ThS ((1)A') and H2US ((3)A″) molecules. The lowest three spin states of triplet H2US are calculated to be within 3 kcal/mol using all three methods, just as in H2UO. The major products are compared with the oxygen analogues H2ThO and H2UO, and the sulfides have 71-85 cm(-1) higher hydrogen-actinide stretching frequencies. The actinide-hydrogen bonding appears to be enhanced in the actinide sulfides through back-bonding of a S 3p electron pair to a vacant 6d orbital, which is delocalized over the H atoms. This unique covalent bond is favored by the inductive effect of the hydride substituents, the pyramidal structures, and the lower electronegativity of sulfur. Sulfur back-bonding gives polarized triple bond character to the US and ThS bonds and enhanced metal hydride bonding in H2ThS and H2US.

Thorium fluorides ThF, ThF2, ThF3, ThF4, ThF3(F2), and ThF5- characterized by infrared spectra in solid argon and electronic structure and vibrational frequency calculations.

Reactions of laser-ablated Th atoms with F2 produce ThF4 as the major product based on agreement with matrix spectra recorded of the vapor from the solid at 800-850 °C. Weaker higher-frequency bands at (567.2, 564.8), (575.9, 575.1), and (531.0, 528.4) cm(-1) in argon are assigned to ThF, ThF2 and ThF3, ThF3(F2) on the basis of their chemical behavior upon increasing reagent concentrations, annealing, and irradiation, the use of NF3, OF2, and HF as F-atom sources, and a comparison with frequencies calculated at the DFT/B3LYP and CCSD(T) levels with a large segmented + ECP basis set on Th and the aug-cc-pVTZ basis set on F. An additional broader band at 460 cm(-1) is assigned to the ThF5(-) anion. The trigonal-bipyramidal ThF5(-) anion (calculated electron detachment energy of 7.17 eV) increases at the expense of ThF3(F2) and F3(-) on full mercury arc irradiation. [ThF3(+)][F2(-)] is shown by calculations to be an ionic complex with a side-bound F2(-) subunit. This paper reports the first evidence for novel pentacoordinated thorium species including the unique [ThF3(+)][F2(-)] ionic radical-ion pair molecule and its electron-capture product, the very stable ThF5(-) anion.

Structural and energetic properties of closed shell XF(n) (X = Cl, Br, and I; n = 1-7) and XO(n)F(m) (X = Cl, Br, and I; n = 1-3; m = 0-6) molecules and ions leading to stability predictions for yet unknown compounds.

Atomization energies at 0 K and heats of formation at 0 and 298 K were predicted for the closed shell compounds XF, XF(2)(-), XF(2)(+), XF(3), XF(4)(-), XF(4)(+), XF(5), XF(6)(-), XF(6)(+) (X = Cl and Br) and XO(+), XOF, XOF(2)(-), XOF(2)(+), XOF(3), XOF(4)(-), XOF(4)(+), XOF(5), XOF(6)(-), XO(2)(+), XO(2)F, XO(2)F(2)(-), XO(2)F(2)(+), XO(2)F(3), XO(2)F(4)(-), XO(3)(+), XO(3)F, XO(3)F(2)(-) (X = Cl, Br, and I) using a composite electronic structure approach based on coupled cluster CCSD(T) calculations extrapolated to the complete basis set limit with additional corrections. The calculated heats of formation are in good agreement with the available experimental data. The calculated heats of formation were used to predict fluoride affinities, fluorine cation affinities, and F(2) binding energies. On the basis of our results, BrOF(5) and BrO(2)F(3) are predicted to be stable against spontaneous loss of F(2) and should be able to be synthesized, whereas BrF(7), ClF(7), BrOF(6)(-), and ClOF(6)(-) are unstable by a very wide margin. The stability of ClOF(5) is a borderline case. Although its F(2) loss is predicted to be exothermic by 4.4 kcal/mol, it may have a sufficiently large barrier toward decomposition and be preparable. This situation would resemble ClO(2)F(3) which was successfully synthesized in spite of being unstable toward F(2) loss by 3.3 kcal/mol. On the other hand, the ClOF(4)(+) and BrOF(4)(+) cations are less likely to be preparable with F(2) loss exothermicities of -17.5 and -9.3 kcal/mol, respectively. On the basis of the F(-) affinities of ClOF (45.4 kcal/mol), BrOF (58.7 kcal/mol), and BrO(2)F(3) (65.7 kcal/mol) and their predicted stabilities against loss of F(2), the ClOF(2)(-), BrOF(2)(-), and BrO(2)F(4)(-) anions are excellent targets for synthesis. Our previous failure to prepare the ClO(2)F(4)(-) anion can be rationalized by the predicted high exothermicity of -17.4 kcal/mol for the loss of F(2).

High-level ab initio predictions of the energetics of mCO2·(H2O)n (n = 1-3, m = 1-12) clusters.

Electronic structure calculations at the correlated molecular orbital theory and density functional theory levels have been used to generate a reliable set of clustering energies for up to three water molecules in carbon dioxide clusters up to n = 12. The structures and energetics are dominated by Lewis acid-base interactions with hydrogen-bonding interactions playing a lesser energetic role. The actual binding energies are somewhat larger than might be expected. The correlated molecular orbital MP2 method and density functional theory with the ωB97X exchange-correlation functional provide good results for the energetics of the clusters, but the B3LYP and ωB97X-D functionals do not. Seven CO(2) molecules form the first solvent shell about a single H(2)O with four CO(2) molecules interacting with the H(2)O via Lewis acid-base interactions, two CO(2) interacting with the H(2)O by hydrogen bonds, and the seventh CO(2) completing the shell. The Lewis acid-base and weak hydrogen bond interactions between the water molecules and the CO(2) molecules are strong enough to disrupt the trimer ring configuration for as few as seven CO(2) molecules. Calculated (13)C NMR chemical shifts for mCO(2)·(H(2)O)(n) show little change with respect to the number of H(2)O or CO(2) molecules in the cluster. The O-H stretching frequencies do exhibit shifts that can provide information about the interactions between water and CO(2) molecules.

Tipping Point for Expansion of Layered Aluminosilicates in Weakly Polar Solvents: Supercritical CO2.

Layered aluminosilicates play a dominant role in the mechanical and gas storage properties of the subsurface, are used in diverse industrial applications, and serve as model materials for understanding solvent-ion-support systems. Although expansion in the presence of H2O is well-known to be systematically correlated with the hydration free energy of the interlayer cation, particularly in environments dominated by nonpolar solvents (i.e., CO2), uptake into the interlayer is not well-understood. Using novel high-pressure capabilities, we investigated the interaction of dry supercritical CO2 with Na-, NH4-, and Cs-saturated montmorillonite, comparing results with predictions from molecular dynamics simulations. Despite the known trend in H2O and that cation solvation energies in CO2 suggest a stronger interaction with Na, both the NH4- and Cs-clays readily absorbed CO2 and expanded, while the Na-clay did not. The apparent inertness of the Na-clay was not due to kinetics, as experiments seeking a stable expanded state showed that none exists. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed a large endothermicity to CO2 intercalation in the Na-clay but little or no energy barrier for the NH4- and Cs-clays. Indeed, the combination of experiment and theory clearly demonstrate that CO2 intercalation of Na-montmorillonite clays is prohibited in the absence of H2O. Consequently, we have shown for the first time that in the presence of a low dielectric constant, gas swelling depends more on the strength of the interaction between the interlayer cation and aluminosilicate sheets and less on that with solvent. The finding suggests a distinct regime in layered aluminosilicate swelling behavior triggered by low solvent polarizability, with important implications in geomechanics, storage, and retention of volatile gases, and across industrial uses in gelling, decoloring, heterogeneous catalysis, and semipermeable reactive barriers.

Infrared spectroscopic and theoretical studies of the OTiF2, OZrF2 and OHfF2 molecules with terminal oxo ligands.

The isolated group 4 metal oxydifluoride molecules OMF(2) (M = Ti, Zr, Hf) with terminal oxo groups are produced specifically on the spontaneous reactions of metal atoms with OF(2) through annealing in solid argon. The product structures and vibrational spectra are characterized using matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy as well as B3LYP density functional and CCSD(T) frequency calculations. OTiF(2) is predicted to have a planar structure while both OZrF(2) and OHfF(2) possess pyramidal structures, all with singlet ground states. Three infrared absorptions are observed for each product molecule, one M-O and two M-F stretching modes, and assignments of these molecules are further supported by the corresponding (18)O shifts. The molecular orbitals of the group 4 OMF(2) molecules show triple bond character for the terminal oxo groups, which are also supported by an NBO analysis. These molecular orbitals include a σ bond (O(2p) + Ti(sd hybrid)), a normal electron pair π bond (O(2p) + Ti(d)), and a dative π bond arising from O lone pair donation to the overlapping Ti d orbital. The M-O bond dissociation energies for OMF(2) are comparable to those in the diatomic oxide molecules. The OTiF intermediate is also observed through two slightly lower frequency bond stretching modes, and its yield is increased in complementary TiO + F(2) experiments. Finally, the formation of group 4 OMF(2) molecules is highly exothermic due to the weak O-F bonds in OF(2) as well as the strong new MO and M-F bonds formed.