Impact of Delirium on Outcomes After Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Delirium portends worse outcomes after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), but it is unclear if symptom resolution or postacute care intensity may mitigate its impact. We aimed to explore differences in outcome associated with delirium resolution before hospital discharge, as well as the potential mediating role of postacute discharge site. METHODS: We performed a single-center cohort study on consecutive ICH patients over 2 years. Delirium was diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria and further classified as persistent or resolved based on delirium status at hospital discharge. We determined the impact of delirium on unfavorable 3-month outcome (modified Rankin Scale score, 4-6) using logistic regression models adjusted for established ICH predictors, then used mediation analysis to examine the indirect effect of delirium via postacute discharge site. RESULTS: Of 590 patients (mean age 70.5±15.5 years, 52% male, 83% White), 59% (n=348) developed delirium during hospitalization. Older age and higher ICH severity were delirium risk factors, but only younger age predicted delirium resolution, which occurred in 75% (161/215) of ICH survivors who had delirium. Delirium was strongly associated with unfavorable outcome, but patients with persistent delirium fared worse (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 7.3 [95% CI, 3.3-16.3]) than those whose delirium resolved (adjusted OR, 3.1 [95% CI, 1.8-5.5]). Patients with delirium were less likely to be discharged to inpatient rehabilitation than skilled nursing facilities (adjusted OR, 0.31 [95% CI, 0.17-0.59]), and postacute care site partially mediated the relationship between delirium and functional outcome in ICH survivors, leading to a 25% reduction in the effect of delirium (without mediator: adjusted OR, 3.0 [95% CI, 1.7-5.6]; with mediator: adjusted OR, 2.3 [95% CI, 1.2-4.3]). CONCLUSIONS: Acute delirium resolves in most patients with ICH by hospital discharge, which was associated with better outcomes than in patients with persistent delirium. The impact of delirium on outcomes may be further mitigated by postacute rehabilitation.

Association of External Ventricular Drain Wean Strategy with Shunt Placement and Length of Stay in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Prospective Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: Survivors of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) face a protracted intensive care unit (ICU) course and are at risk for developing refractory hydrocephalus with the need for a permanent ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS). Management of the external ventricular drain (EVD) used to provide temporary cerebrospinal fluid diversion may influence the need for a VPS, ICU length of stay (LOS), and drain complications, but the optimal EVD management approach is unknown. Therefore, we sought to determine the effect of EVD discontinuation strategy on VPS rate. METHODS: This was a prospective multicenter observational study at six neurocritical care units in the United States. The target population included adults with suspected aneurysmal SAH who required an EVD. Patients were preassigned to rapid or gradual EVD weans based on their treating center. The primary outcome was the rate of VPS placement. Secondary outcomes were EVD duration, ICU LOS, hospital LOS, and drain complications. RESULTS: A rapid EVD wean protocol was associated with a lower rate of VPS placement, including a delayed posthospitalization shunt, in an adjusted Cox proportional analysis (hazard ratio 0.52 [p = 0.041]) and adjusted logistic regression model (odds ratio 0.43 [95% confidence interval 0.18-1.03], p = 0.057). A rapid wean was also associated with 2.1 fewer EVD days (p = 0.007) and saved an estimated 2.5 ICU days (p = 0.049), as compared with a gradual wean protocol. There were fewer nonfunctioning EVDs in the rapid group (odds ratio 0.32 [95% confidence interval 0.11-0.92]). Furthermore, we found that the time to first wean and the number of weaning attempts were important independent covariates that affected the likelihood of receiving a VPS and the duration of ICU admission. CONCLUSIONS: A rapid EVD wean was associated with decreased rates of VPS placement, decreased ICU LOS, and decreased drain complications in survivors of aneurysmal SAH. These findings suggest that a randomized multicentered controlled study comparing rapid vs. gradual EVD weaning protocols is justified.

Risk Factors for Opioid Utilization in Patients with Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Headache is a common presenting symptom of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and often necessitates treatment with opioid medications. However, opioid prescribing patterns in patients with ICH are not well described. We aimed to characterize the prevalence and risk factors for short and longer-term opioid use in patients with ICH. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using data from a single-center registry of patients with nontraumatic ICH. This registry included data on demographics, ICH-related characteristics, and premorbid, inpatient, and postdischarge medications. After excluding patients who died or received end-of-life care, we used multivariable regression models adjusted for premorbid opioid use to determine demographic and ICH-related risk factors for inpatient and postdischarge opioid use. RESULTS: Of 468 patients with ICH in our cohort, 15% (n = 70) had premorbid opioid use, 53% (n = 248) received opioids during hospitalization, and 12% (n = 53) were prescribed opioids at discharge. The most commonly used opioids during hospitalization were fentanyl (38%), oxycodone (30%), morphine (26%), and hydromorphone (7%). Patients who received opioids during hospitalization were younger (univariate: median [interquartile range] 64 [53.5-74] vs. 76 [67-83] years, p < 0.001; multivariable: odds ratio [OR] 0.96 per year, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.94-0.98) and had larger ICH volumes (univariate: median [interquartile range] 10.1 [2.1-28.6] vs. 2.7 [0.8-9.9] cm3, p < 0.001; multivariable: OR 1.05 per cm3, 95% CI 1.03-1.08) than those who did not receive opioids. All patients who had external ventricular drain placement and craniotomy/craniectomy received inpatient opioids. Additional risk factors for increased inpatient opioid use included infratentorial ICH location (OR 4.8, 95% CI 2.3-10.0), presence of intraventricular hemorrhage (OR 3.9, 95% CI 2.2-7.0), underlying vascular lesions (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.1-8.1), and other secondary ICH etiologies (OR 7.5, 95% CI 1.7-32.8). Vascular lesions (OR 4.0, 95% CI 1.3-12.5), malignancy (OR 5.0, 95% CI 1.5-16.4), vasculopathy (OR 10.0, 95% CI 1.8-54.2), and other secondary etiologies (OR 7.2, 95% CI 1.8-29.9) were also risk factors for increased opioid prescriptions at discharge. Among patients who received opioid prescriptions at discharge, 43% (23 of 53) continued to refill their prescriptions at 3 months post discharge. CONCLUSIONS: Inpatient opioid use in patients with ICH is common, with some risk factors that may be mechanistically connected to primary headache pathophysiology. However, the lower frequency of opioid prescriptions at discharge suggests that inpatient opioid use does not necessarily lead to a high rate of long-term opioid dependence in patients with ICH.

Association of asymptomatic cerebral vasospasm with outcomes in survivors of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral vasospasm (cVSP) is a common complication in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) and is associated with worse outcomes. However, clinical significance of asymptomatic cVSP is poorly understood. We sought to determine the association of asymptomatic cVSP with functional outcome and hospital length of stay (LOS). METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of a prospectively collected cohort of patients with aSAH who survived hospitalization at an academic center between 2016 and 2021. We defined cVSP based on transcranial Doppler criteria. Multivariate logistic and multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the association of asymptomatic cVSP with poor functional outcome (defined as modified Rankin scale 3-6 at 3 months after discharge) and hospital length of stay (LOS). RESULTS: The cohort consisted of 201 aSAH patients with a mean age 54.9 years (SD 13.6) and 60% were female. One hundred nine patients (54%) experienced cVSP, of whom 43 patients (39%) were asymptomatic. Patients with asymptomatic cVSP were younger (mean 50.5 years [SD 10.6] vs 61 years [SD12.5]; p < 0.001) and had longer ICU LOS (median 13 days [IQR12-20] vs median 12 days [IQR9-15], p = 0.018) compared to those without cVSP. However, after adjusting with other variables asymptomatic cVSP was not associated with longer ICU or hospital LOS. Asymptomatic cVSP was not associated with poor outcome either (p = 0.14). CONCLUSION: Asymptomatic cVSP, which was more common in younger patients, was neither associated with poor functional outcome nor hospital LOS.  Larger prospective studies are needed to assess the significance of asymptomatic cVSP on long-term outcomes.

Surrogate Satisfaction with Decision Making After Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Surrogate decision makers for patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) are frequently asked to make difficult decisions on use of life-sustaining treatments. We explored ICH surrogate satisfaction with decision making and experience of decision regret using validated measures in a prospective multicenter study. METHODS: Cases of non-traumatic ICH were enrolled from three hospitals (September 2015-December 2016), and surrogate decision makers were invited to complete a self-administered survey. The primary outcome was the 10-item decision-making subscale of the Family Satisfaction in the Intensive Care Unit scale (FSICU-DM, range 0-100, higher is greater satisfaction), and the secondary outcome was the decision regret scale (range 0-100, higher is greater regret). Linear regression models were used to assess the association between satisfaction with decision making and pre-specified covariates using manual backward selection. RESULTS: A total of 73 surrogates were approached for participation (in person or mail), with 48 surrogates returning a completed survey (median surrogate age 60.5 years, 63% female, 77% white). Patients had a median age of 72.5, 54% were female, with a median admission Glasgow coma scale of 10, in-hospital mortality of 31%, and 56% with an in-hospital DNR order. Physicians commonly made treatment recommendation (> 50%) regarding brain surgery or transitions to comfort measures, but rarely made recommendations (< 20%) regarding DNR orders. Surrogate satisfaction with decision making was generally high (median FSICU-DM 85, IQR 57.5-95). Factors associated with higher satisfaction on multivariable analysis included greater use of shared decision making (P < 0.0001), younger patient age (p = 0.02), ICH score of 3 or higher (p = 0.03), and surrogate relationship (spouse vs. other, p = 0.02). Timing of DNR orders was not associated with satisfaction (P > 0.25). Decision regret scores were generally low (median 12.5, IQR 0-31.3). CONCLUSIONS: Considering the severity and abruptness of ICH, it is reassuring that surrogate satisfaction with decision making was generally high and regret was generally low. However, more work is needed to define the appropriate outcome measures and optimal methods of recruitment for studies of surrogate decision makers of ICH patients.

Association of Dexamethasone with Shunt Requirement, Early Disability, and Medical Complications in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Current guidelines do not support the routine use of corticosteroids in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). However, corticosteroids use in aSAH has been practiced at some centers by convention. The aim of the study was to determine the incidence of hydrocephalus requiring ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) placement as well as functional outcome on discharge and adverse events attributed to corticosteroids in patients with aSAH treated with different dexamethasone (DXM) treatment schemes. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 206 patients with aSAH stratified to three groups based on the DXM treatment scheme: no corticosteroids, short course of DXM (S-DXM; 4 mg every 6 h for 1 day followed by a daily total dose reduction by 25% and then by 50% on last day), and long course of DXM (L-DXM; 4 mg every 6 h for 5-7 days followed by reduction by 50% every other day). The primary outcome measure was the placement of a VPS, and the secondary outcome was a good functional outcome [modified Rankin Scale (mRS) 0-3] at hospital discharge. Safety measures were the incidence of infection (pneumonia, urinary tract infection, ventriculitis, meningitis), presence of delirium, and hyperglycemia. RESULTS: There was no difference in the rate of external ventricular drain (EVD) (p = 0.164) and VPS placement (p = 0.792), nor in the rate of good outcome (p = 0.928) among three defined treatment regimens. Moreover, the median duration of treatment with EVD did not differ between subjects treated with no corticosteroids, S-DXM, and L-DXM (p = 0.905), and the probability of EVD removal was similar when stratified according to treatment regimens (log-rank; p = 0.256). Patients who received L-DXM had significantly more complications as compared to patients, who received no corticosteroids or S-DXM (78.4% vs. 58.6%; p = 0.005). After adjustment, L-DXM remained independently associated with increased risk of combined adverse events (OR = 2.72; 95%CI, 1.30-5.72; p = 0.008), infection (OR = 3.45; 95%CI, 1.63-7.30; p = 0.001) and hyperglycemia (OR = 2.05; 95%CI, 1.04-4.04; p = 0.039). CONCLUSIONS: DXM use among patients with aSAH did not relate to the rate of EVD and VPS placement, duration of EVD treatment, and functional disability at discharge but increased the risk of medical complications.

Early Neurological Changes and Interpretation of Clinical Grades in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVES: Hunt and Hess (HH) and World Federation of Neurological Surgeons (WFNS) grades are commonly used to report clinical severity of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). We sought to determine the impact of early neurological changes and the timing of clinical grade assignment on the prognostication accuracy. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed a cohort of consecutive patients with aSAH who were admitted to an academic center. Patients with confirmed aneurysmal cause were included. Relevant clinical data including daily clinical grades, imaging data and functional outcome were analyzed. Favorable outcome was defined as mRS 0 to 3. Early neurological improvement (ENI) and early neurological deterioration (END) were respectively defined as any improvement or deterioration of HH grades from hospital day 1 to the earliest time from hospital day 2 to 5. RESULTS: Of 310 patients, 24% experienced early neurological changes from hospital day 1 to 3. For each point increase in HH grades from day 1 to day 3, the odds ratio for worse outcome was 2.57 (95% CI [1.74-3.79]) and for each point decrease in HH grades from day 1 to day 3, the odds ratio for worse outcome was 0.28 (95% CI [0.17-0.47]). Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis revealed that clinical grades on day 3 had higher accuracy in predicting worse outcome than clinical grades on day 1. CONCLUSION: Early changes in neurological status can alter trajectory of hospital course and functional outcome. The prognostic accuracy of the clinical grades from hospital day 3 is significantly greater than those on admission.

Gender Disparities in Stroke Code Activation in Patients with Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVES: Routine implementation of protocol-driven stroke "codes" results in timelier and more effective acute stroke management. However, it is unclear if patient demographics contribute to disparities in stroke code activation. We aimed to explore these demographic factors in a retrospective cohort study of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified consecutive patients with non-traumatic ICH who presented directly to our Comprehensive Stroke Center over 2 years and collected data on demographics, clinical features, and stroke code activation. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine differences in stroke code activation based on patient demographics while adjusting for initial clinical features (NIH Stroke Scale, FAST [facial drooping, arm weakness, speech difficulties] vs. non-FAST symptoms, time from last-known-well [LKW], and systolic blood pressure [SBP]). RESULTS: Among 265 patients, 68% (n=179) had a stroke code activation. Stroke codes occurred less frequently in women (62%) than men (72%) and in non-white (57%) vs. white patients (70%). Non-stroke code patients were less likely to have FAST symptoms (37% vs. 87%) and had lower initial SBP (mean±SD 159.3±34.2 vs. 176.0±31.9 mmHg) than stroke code patients. In our primary multivariable models, neither age nor race were associated with stroke code activation. However, women were significantly less likely to have stroke codes than men (OR 0.49 [95% CI 0.24-0.98]), as were non-FAST symptoms (OR 0.11 [95% CI 0.05-0.22]). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest gender disparities in emergency stroke care that should prompt further investigations into potential systemic biases. Increased awareness of atypical stroke symptoms is also warranted.

Deconstructing Poststroke Delirium in a Prospective Cohort of Patients With Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVES: Poststroke delirium may be underdiagnosed due to the challenges of disentangling delirium symptoms from underlying neurologic deficits. We aimed to determine the prevalence of individual delirium features and the frequency with which they could not be assessed in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort study. SETTING: Neurocritical Care and Stroke Units at a university hospital. PATIENTS: Consecutive patients with intracerebral hemorrhage from February 2018 to May 2018. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: An attending neurointensivist performed 257 total daily assessments for delirium on 60 patients (mean age 68.0 [SD 18.4], 62% male, median intracerebral hemorrhage score 1.5 [interquartile range 1-2], delirium prevalence 57% [n = 34]). Each assessment included the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU, Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist, a focused bedside cognitive examination, chart review, and nurse interview. We characterized individual symptom prevalence and established delirium diagnoses using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition criteria, then compared performance of the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU and Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist against reference-standard expert diagnosis. Symptom fluctuation (61% of all assessments), psychomotor changes (46%), sleep-wake disturbances (46%), and impaired arousal (37%) had the highest prevalence and were never rated "unable to assess," while inattention (36%), disorientation (27%), and disorganized thinking (18%) were also common but were often rated 'unable to assess' (32%, 43%, and 44% of assessments, respectively), most frequently due to aphasia (32% of patients). Including nonverbal assessments of attention decreased the frequency of 'unable to assess' ratings to 11%. Since the Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist may be positive without the presence of symptoms that require verbal assessment, it was more accurate (sensitivity = 77%, specificity = 97%, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.87) than the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (sensitivity = 41%, specificity = 88%, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.64). CONCLUSIONS: Delirium is common after intracerebral hemorrhage, but severe neurologic deficits may confound its assessment and lead to underdiagnosis. The Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist's inclusion of nonverbal features may make it more accurate than the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU in patients with neurologic deficits, but novel tools designed for such patients may be warranted.

Predicting symptomatic intracranial haemorrhage after mechanical thrombectomy: the TAG score.

BACKGROUND: There is limited data on predictors of symptomatic intracranial haemorrhage (sICH) in patients who underwent mechanical thrombectomy. In this study, we aim to determine those predictors with external validation. METHODS: We evaluated mechanical thrombectomy in a derivation cohort of patients at a comprehensive stroke centre over a 30-month period. Clinical and radiographic data on these patients were obtained from the prospective quality improvement database. sICH was defined using the European Cooperative Acute Stroke Study III. We compared clinical and radiographic characteristics between patients with and without sICH using χ2 and t tests to identify independent predictors of sICH with p<0.1. Significant variables were then combined in a multivariate logistic regression model to derive an sICH prediction score. This score was then validated using data from the Blood Pressure After Endovascular Treatment multicentre prospective registry. RESULTS: We identified 578 patients with acute ischaemic stroke who received thrombectomy, 19 had sICH (3.3%). Predictive factors of sICH were: thrombolysis in cerebral ischaemia (TICI) score, Alberta stroke program early CT score (ASPECTS), and glucose level, and from these predictors, we derived the weighted TICI-ASPECTS-glucose (TAG) score, which was associated with sICH in the derivation (OR per unit increase 1.98, 95% CI 1.48 to 2.66, p<0.001, area under curve ((AUC)=0.79) and validation (OR per unit increase 1.48, 95% CI 1.22 to 1.79, p<0.001, AUC=0.69) cohorts. CONCLUSION: High TAG scores are associated with sICH in patients receiving mechanical thrombectomy. Larger studies are needed to validate this scoring system and test strategies to reduce sICH risk and make thrombectomy safer in patients with elevated TAG scores.

Evidence-Based Management of External Ventricular Drains.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The optimal management of external ventricular drains (EVD) in the setting of acute brain injury remains controversial. Therefore, we sought to determine whether there are optimal management approaches based on the current evidence. RECENT FINDINGS: We identified 2 recent retrospective studies on the management of EVDs after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) which showed conflicting results. A multicenter survey revealed discordance between existing evidence from randomized trials and actual practice. A prospective study in a post-traumatic brain injury (TBI) population demonstrated the benefit of EVDs but did not determine the optimal management of the EVD itself. The recent CLEAR trials have suggested that specific positioning of the EVD in the setting of intracerebral hemorrhage with intraventricular hemorrhage may be a promising approach to improve blood clearance. Evidence on the optimal management of EVDs remains limited. Additional multicenter prospective studies are critically needed to guide approaches to the management of the EVD.

Outcomes of protocolised analgesia and sedation in a neurocritical care unit.

OBJECTIVES: Providing analgesia and sedation while allowing for neurological assessment is important in the neurocritical care unit (NCCU), yet data are limited about the effects of protocolised analgesia and sedation. We developed an analgesia-based sedation protocol and evaluated its effect on medication utilisation and costs in the NCCU. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of patients who are mechanically ventilated and admitted to a 12-bed NCCU over four years. To compare outcomes, we used gamma and negative binomial regression models, and interrupted time-series sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: The study cohort consisted of 1197 patients: 576 pre-protocol and 621 post-protocol. The protocol resulted in an increase in fentanyl use [incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 2.8, (95% confidence limits (CLs) 1.9, 4.2)] and a decrease in propofol use (IRR = 0.8, CLs 0.6, 1.0). There was a decrease in fentanyl (cost ratio = 0.8, CLs 0.5, 1.1) and propofol costs (cost ratio = 0.6, CLs 0.5, 0.8). The sensitivity analyses results were similar. There was no effect on healthcare utilisation, healthcare costs, and in-hospital mortality. CONCLUSION: Protocolised analgesia and sedation increased analgesia use, decreased sedative use, and reduced medication-associated costs in the NCCU. Our results suggest that similar NCCUs should consider use of population-specific protocols to manage analgesia and sedation.

Utilization of long-term care after decompressive hemicraniectomy for severe stroke among older patients.

BACKGROUND: While clinical trial data support decompressive hemicraniectomy (DHC) as improving survival among patients with severe ischemic stroke, quality of life outcomes among older persons remain controversial. AIMS: To aid decision-making and understand practice variation, we measured long-term outcomes and patterns of regional variation for a nationwide cohort of ischemic stroke patients after DHC. METHODS: Medicare fee-for-service ischemic stroke cases over age 65 during the year 2008 were used to create a cohort followed for 2 years (2009-2010) after stroke and DHC procedure. Rates of mortality, acute hospital readmission, and long-term care (LTC) utilization were calculated. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify individual predictors of institutional LTC. Regional variation in DHC was calculated through aggregation and merging with the state-level data. RESULTS: Among 397,503 acute ischemic stroke patients, 130 (0.03 %) underwent DHC. Mean age was 72 years, and 75 % were between the ages of 65 and 74. Mortality was highest (38 %) within the first 30 days. At 2 years, 59 % of the original cohort had died. The 30-day rate of acute hospital readmission was 25 %. Among survivors, 75 % returned home 1 year after index stroke admission. States with higher per capita health expenditures were associated with wider variation in utilization of DHC. CONCLUSIONS: There is a high rate of mortality among older stroke patients undergoing DHC. Although most survivors of DHC are not permanently institutionalized, there is wide variation in utilization of DHC across the USA.

The use of transcranial Doppler ultrasound in confirming brain death in the setting of skull defects and extraventricular drains.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD) has been used as a confirmatory test for the diagnosis of brain death (BD), but may be inaccurate in patients with a skull defect or extraventricular drain (EVD). METHODS AND RESULTS: We report three cases of patients with a skull defect or EVD in whom TCD supported a diagnosis of BD but in which the clinical examination later refuted the diagnosis. CONCLUSION: We caution against the use of TCD to confirm the diagnosis of BD in the presence of a skull defect or EVD.

Predictors of hospital length of stay and long-term care facility placement in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Background: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is frequently associated with complications, extended hospital length of stay (LOS) and high health care related costs. We sought to determine predictors for hospital LOS and discharge disposition to a long-term care facility (LTCF) in aSAH patients. Methods: We performed a retrospective study of a prospectively collected cohort of consecutive patients with aSAH admitted to an academic referral center from 2016 to 2021. Multiple linear regression was performed to identify predictors for hospital LOS. We then created a 10-point scoring system to predict discharge disposition to a LTCF. Results: In a cohort of 318 patients with confirmed aSAH, mean age was 57 years (SD 13.7), 61% were female and 70% were white. Hospital LOS was longer for survivors (median 19 days, IQR 14-25) than for non-survivors (median 5 days, IQR 2-8; p < 0.001). Main predictors for longer LOS for this cohort were ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) requirement (p < 0.001), delayed cerebral ischemia (p = 0.026), and pneumonia (p = 0.014). The strongest predictor for LTCF disposition was age older than 60 years (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.07-1.21; p < 0.001). LTCF score had high accuracy in predicting discharge disposition to a LTCF (area under the curve [AUC] 0.83; 95% CI 0.75-0.91). Forty-one percent of patients who were discharged to a LTCF had significant functional recovery at 3 months post-discharge. Conclusions: VPS requirement and aSAH related complications were associated with longer hospital LOS compared to other factors. LTCF score has high accuracy in predicting discharge disposition to a LTCF.

Successful management of severe neuroinvasive eastern equine encephalitis.

BACKGROUND: Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) virus is an arbovirus that mostly causes asymptomatic infection in humans; however, some people can develop a neuroinvasive infection associated with a high mortality. METHODS: We present a case of a patient with severe neuroinvasive EEE. RESULTS: A 21-year-old man initially presented with headache, fever, and vomiting and was found to have a neutrophilic pleocytosis in his cerebrospinal fluid. He eventually was diagnosed with EEE, treated with high-dose methylprednisolone and intravenous immunoglobulin. His course in the NeuroIntensive Care Unit was complicated by cerebral edema and intracranial hypertension, requiring osmotherapy, pentobarbital and placement of an external ventricular device, and subclinical seizures, necessitating multiple anti-epileptic drugs CONCLUSIONS: A multifaceted approach including aggressive management of cerebral edema and ICP as well as treatment with immunomodulating agents and cessation of seizures may prevent brain herniation, secondary neurologic injury and death in patients with EEE. Effective management and treatment in our patient contributed to a dramatic recovery and ultimate good outcome.

A quantitative model to differentiate nonaneurysmal perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage from aneurysmal etiology.

OBJECTIVE: Nonaneurysmal perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage (pmSAH) is considered to have a lower-risk pattern than other types of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). However, a minority of patients with pmSAH may harbor a causative posterior circulation aneurysm. To exclude this possibility, many institutions pursue exhaustive imaging. In this study the authors aimed to develop a novel predictive model based on initial noncontrast head CT (NCHCT) features to differentiate pmSAH from aneurysmal causes. METHODS: The authors retrospectively reviewed patients admitted to an academic center for treatment of a suspected aneurysmal SAH (aSAH) during the period from 2016 to 2021. Patients with a final diagnosis of pmSAH or posterior circulation aSAH were included. Using NCHCT, the thickness (continuous variable) and location of blood in basal cisterns and sylvian fissures (categorical variables) were compared between groups. A scoring system was created using features that were significantly different between groups. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was used to measure the accuracy of this model in predicting aneurysmal etiology. A separate patient cohort was used for external validation of this model. RESULTS: Of 420 SAH cases, 48 patients with pmSAH and 37 with posterior circulation aSAH were identified. Blood thickness measurements in the crural and ambient cisterns and interhemispheric and sylvian fissures and degree of extension into the sylvian fissure were all significantly different between groups (all p < 0.001). The authors developed a 10-point scoring model to predict aneurysmal causes with high accuracy (area under the curve [AUC] 0.99; 95% CI 0.98-1.00; OR per point increase 10; 95% CI 2.18-46.4). External validation resulted in persistently high accuracy (AUC 0.97; 95% CI 0.92-1.00) of this model. CONCLUSIONS: A risk stratification score using initial blood clot burden may accurately differentiate between aneurysmal and nonaneurysmal pmSAH. Larger prospective studies are encouraged to further validate this quantitative tool.

Radiographic predictors of aneurysmal etiology in patients with aneurysmal pattern subarachnoid hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVE: Spontaneous angiogram-negative nonperimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage (an-NPSAH) can represent a diagnostic and management dilemma. The authors sought to determine radiographic predictors of aneurysmal etiology based on admission noncontrast head CT scans. METHODS: The authors performed a retrospective cohort study of prospectively collected data from consecutive patients who were admitted for spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) with suspected aneurysmal etiology to an academic center from 2016 to 2021. They compared blood thickness in the basal cisterns and sylvian fissures and modified Graeb scores on admission head CT scans between the two groups and subsequently developed a predictive model to identify aneurysmal etiology. RESULTS: Of 259 included patients (mean age 56 years [SD 12.7 years]; 55% female), 209 had aneurysmal SAH (aSAH) and 50 had an-NPSAH. The median modified Graeb scores were similar for aSAH and an-NPSAH (6 [IQR 2-10] vs 3.5 [IQR 0-8.5], p = 0.33). The mean blood thickness was greater in the sylvian fissure (p = 0.010) and interhemispheric cisterns (p = 0.002), and there was a greater median degree of extension of blood in the sylvian fissures (p = 0.001) in aSAH than in an-NPSAH patients, but the mean blood thickness was less in the prepontine cistern (p = 0.014). The authors' scoring model was constructed based on differences in radiographic features. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed acceptable accuracy in predicting aneurysmal etiology (area under the curve 0.71, 95% CI 0.62-0.79). CONCLUSIONS: There are differences in radiographic features on admission head CT between an-NPSAH and aSAH patients. The authors' proposed risk stratification model may be considered for further development and use in clinical practice in the future.

Association of hemoglobin trend and outcomes in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A single center cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Anemia has been linked to delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) and worse outcome in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). However, the association of hemoglobin (Hb) trend and outcomes is not well studied. We investigated predictors of Hb trend and its association with outcomes in patients with aSAH. Our hypothesis was that a negative Hb trend is associated with poorer outcomes independent of Hb values. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of a prospectively collected cohort of consecutive patients with aSAH who were admitted to an academic center (2016-2021). We tested the association of Hb trend and values with measures including DCI and poor functional outcome defined as modified Rankin scale 4-6 at 3 months after discharge. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with Hb difference from admission to discharge. RESULTS: We included 310 patients with confirmed aneurysmal etiology (mean age 57 years, SD13.6; 62 % female). Greater Hb decrement from admission to discharge was independently associated with higher likelihood of both DCI (OR 1.28 per 1 g/dl decrease in Hb, 95 % CI 1.08-1.47; p = 0.003) and poor functional outcome (OR 1.27 per 1 g/dl decrease in Hb, 1.03-1.53; p = 0.026) independent of any absolute Hb values. Predictors of Hb decrement from admission to discharge were hospital length of stay, Hunt and Hess grades, female sex and age. CONCLUSION: Greater Hb decrement can be associated with higher likelihood of DCI and poor functional outcome in aSAH. More evidence is needed to use Hb trend to guide transfusion threshold in aSAH patients.