Precision in situ cryogenic correlative light and electron microscopy of optogenetically positioned organelles.

Unambiguous targeting of cellular structures for in situ cryo-electron microscopy in the heterogeneous, dense and compacted environment of the cytoplasm remains challenging. Here, we have developed a cryogenic correlative light and electron microscopy (cryo-CLEM) workflow that utilizes thin cells grown on a mechanically defined substratum for rapid analysis of organelles and macromolecular complexes by cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). We coupled these advancements with optogenetics to redistribute perinuclear-localised organelles to the cell periphery, allowing visualisation of organelles that would otherwise be positioned in cellular regions too thick for cryo-ET. This reliable and robust workflow allows for fast in situ analyses without the requirement for cryo-focused ion beam milling. Using this protocol, cells can be frozen, imaged by cryo-fluorescence microscopy and be ready for batch cryo-ET within a day.

A variable undecad repeat domain in cavin1 regulates caveola formation and stability.

Caveolae are plasma membrane invaginations involved in transport, signalling and mechanical membrane sensing in metazoans. Their formation depends upon multiple interactions between membrane-embedded caveolins, lipids and cytosolic cavin proteins. Of the four cavin family members, only cavin1 is strictly required for caveola formation. Here, we demonstrate that an eleven residue (undecad) repeat sequence (UC1) exclusive to cavin1 is essential for caveolar localization and promotes membrane remodelling through binding to phosphatidylserine. In the notochord of mechanically stimulated zebrafish embryos, the UC1 domain is required for caveolar stability and resistance to membrane stress. The number of undecad repeats in the cavin1 UC1 domain varies throughout evolution, and we find that an increased number also correlates with increased caveolar stability. Lastly, we show that the cavin1 UC1 domain induces dramatic remodelling of the plasma membrane when grafted into cavin2 suggesting an important role in membrane sculpting. Overall, our work defines a novel conserved cavin1 modular domain that controls caveolar assembly and stability.

Cavin family proteins and the assembly of caveolae.

Caveolae are an abundant feature of the plasma membrane in many cells. Until recently, they were generally considered to be membrane invaginations whose formation primarily driven by integral membrane proteins called caveolins. However, the past decade has seen the emergence of the cavin family of peripheral membrane proteins as essential coat components and regulators of caveola biogenesis. In this Commentary, we summarise recent data on the role of cavins in caveola formation, highlighting structural studies that provide new insights into cavin coat assembly. In mammals, there are four cavin family members that associate through homo- and hetero-oligomerisation to form distinct subcomplexes on caveolae, which can be released into the cell in response to stimuli. Studies from several labs have provided a better understanding of cavin stoichiometry and the molecular basis for their oligomerisation, as well as identifying interactions with membrane phospholipids that may be important for caveola function. We propose a model in which coincident, low-affinity electrostatically controlled protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions allow the formation of caveolae, generating a meta-stable structure that can respond to plasma membrane stress by release of cavins.

Moonlighting cell-surface GAPDH recruits apotransferrin to effect iron egress from mammalian cells.

Iron (Fe(2+), Fe(3+)) homeostasis is a tightly regulated process, involving precise control of iron influx and egress from cells. Although the mechanisms of its import into cells by iron carrier molecules are well characterized, iron export remains poorly understood. The current paradigm envisages unique functions associated with specialized macromolecules for its cellular import (transferrin receptors) or export (ferroportin, also known as SLC40A1). Previous studies have revealed that iron-depleted cells recruit glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), a multitasking, 'moonlighting' protein, to their surface for internalization of the iron carrier holotransferrin. Here, we report that under the converse condition of intracellular iron excess, cells switch the isoform of GAPDH on their surface to one that now recruits iron-free apotransferrin in close association with ferroportin to facilitate the efflux of iron. Increased expression of surface GAPDH correlated with increased apotransferrin binding and enhanced iron export from cells, a capability lost in GAPDH-knockdown cells. These findings were confirmed in vivo utilizing a rodent model of iron overload. Besides identifying for the first time an apotransferrin receptor, our work uncovers the two-way switching of multifunctional molecules to manage cellular micronutrient requirements.

Membrane lipid composition differentially modulates the function of human plasma platelet activating factor-acetylhydrolase.

Human plasma platelet activating factor-acetylhydrolase (HpPAF-AH) is a calcium-independent phospholipase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester bond at the sn-2 position of phospholipid substrates. The enzyme belongs to group VIIA of the phospholipase A2 superfamily and is associated with the lipids. Circulating form of HpPAF-AH resides on the lipoprotein particles and acts on a wide variety of substrates, including oxidized phospholipids. In this study we have characterized the effect of lipid composition of the membrane vesicles on the function of purified HpPAF-AH. Lipid composition of the vesicles was varied by incorporating varying amounts of cholesterol in the matrix phospholipids, POPC and DPPC, and its effect on the membrane binding, membrane penetration and the activity of the enzyme was determined. Physicochemical properties of the phospholipid vesicles were characterized by using different fluorescent probes. For the first time our results show that (a) membrane binding of HpPAF-AH increases the activity of enzyme (interfacial activation) and (b) lipid composition of membrane vesicles, by changing the physicochemical properties, differentially modulates the binding, partial membrane penetration and the activity of the enzyme.

Structural Predictions of the SNX-RGS Proteins Suggest They Belong to a New Class of Lipid Transfer Proteins.

Recent advances in protein structure prediction using machine learning such as AlphaFold2 and RosettaFold presage a revolution in structural biology. Genome-wide predictions of protein structures are providing unprecedented insights into their architecture and intradomain interactions, and applications have already progressed towards assessing protein complex formation. Here we present detailed analyses of the sorting nexin proteins that contain regulator of G-protein signalling domains (SNX-RGS proteins), providing a key example of the ability of AlphaFold2 to reveal novel structures with previously unsuspected biological functions. These large proteins are conserved in most eukaryotes and are known to associate with lipid droplets (LDs) and sites of LD-membrane contacts, with key roles in regulating lipid metabolism. They possess five domains, including an N-terminal transmembrane domain that anchors them to the endoplasmic reticulum, an RGS domain, a lipid interacting phox homology (PX) domain and two additional domains named the PXA and PXC domains of unknown structure and function. Here we report the crystal structure of the RGS domain of sorting nexin 25 (SNX25) and show that the AlphaFold2 prediction closely matches the experimental structure. Analysing the full-length SNX-RGS proteins across multiple homologues and species we find that the distant PXA and PXC domains in fact fold into a single unique structure that notably features a large and conserved hydrophobic pocket. The nature of this pocket strongly suggests a role in lipid or fatty acid binding, and we propose that these molecules represent a new class of conserved lipid transfer proteins.

Proteomic identification and structural basis for the interaction between sorting nexin SNX17 and PDLIM family proteins.

The sorting nexin SNX17 controls endosomal recycling of transmembrane cargo proteins including integrins, the amyloid precursor protein, and lipoprotein receptors. This requires association with the Commander trafficking complex and depends on the C terminus of SNX17 through unknown mechanisms. Using proteomics, we find that the SNX17 C terminus is sufficient for Commander interaction and also associates with members of the PDZ and LIM domain (PDLIM) family. SNX17 contains a type III PDZ binding motif that binds specifically to the PDLIM proteins. The structure of the PDLIM7 PDZ domain bound to the SNX17 C terminus reveals an unconventional perpendicular peptide interaction mediated by electrostatic contacts and a uniquely conserved proline-containing loop sequence in the PDLIM protein family. Our results define the mechanism of SNX17-PDLIM interaction and suggest that the PDLIM proteins may play a role in regulating the activity of SNX17 in conjunction with Commander and actin-rich endosomal trafficking domains.

Cavin1 intrinsically disordered domains are essential for fuzzy electrostatic interactions and caveola formation.

Caveolae are spherically shaped nanodomains of the plasma membrane, generated by cooperative assembly of caveolin and cavin proteins. Cavins are cytosolic peripheral membrane proteins with negatively charged intrinsically disordered regions that flank positively charged α-helical regions. Here, we show that the three disordered domains of Cavin1 are essential for caveola formation and dynamic trafficking of caveolae. Electrostatic interactions between disordered regions and α-helical regions promote liquid-liquid phase separation behaviour of Cavin1 in vitro, assembly of Cavin1 oligomers in solution, generation of membrane curvature, association with caveolin-1, and Cavin1 recruitment to caveolae in cells. Removal of the first disordered region causes irreversible gel formation in vitro and results in aberrant caveola trafficking through the endosomal system. We propose a model for caveola assembly whereby fuzzy electrostatic interactions between Cavin1 and caveolin-1 proteins, combined with membrane lipid interactions, are required to generate membrane curvature and a metastable caveola coat.

Cavin4 interacts with Bin1 to promote T-tubule formation and stability in developing skeletal muscle.

The cavin proteins are essential for caveola biogenesis and function. Here, we identify a role for the muscle-specific component, Cavin4, in skeletal muscle T-tubule development by analyzing two vertebrate systems, mouse and zebrafish. In both models, Cavin4 localized to T-tubules, and loss of Cavin4 resulted in aberrant T-tubule maturation. In zebrafish, which possess duplicated cavin4 paralogs, Cavin4b was shown to directly interact with the T-tubule-associated BAR domain protein Bin1. Loss of both Cavin4a and Cavin4b caused aberrant accumulation of interconnected caveolae within the T-tubules, a fragmented T-tubule network enriched in Caveolin-3, and an impaired Ca2+ response upon mechanical stimulation. We propose a role for Cavin4 in remodeling the T-tubule membrane early in development by recycling caveolar components from the T-tubule to the sarcolemma. This generates a stable T-tubule domain lacking caveolae that is essential for T-tubule function.

Class IIa Histone Deacetylases Drive Toll-like Receptor-Inducible Glycolysis and Macrophage Inflammatory Responses via Pyruvate Kinase M2.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) drive innate immune cell-mediated inflammation. Here we identify class IIa HDACs as key molecular links between Toll-like receptor (TLR)-inducible aerobic glycolysis and macrophage inflammatory responses. A proteomic screen identified the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase M isoform 2 (Pkm2) as a partner of proinflammatory Hdac7 in murine macrophages. Myeloid-specific Hdac7 overexpression in transgenic mice amplifies lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-inducible lactate and promotes a glycolysis-associated inflammatory signature. Conversely, pharmacological or genetic targeting of Hdac7 and other class IIa HDACs attenuates LPS-inducible glycolysis and accompanying inflammatory responses in macrophages. We show that an Hdac7-Pkm2 complex acts as an immunometabolism signaling hub, whereby Pkm2 deacetylation at lysine 433 licenses its proinflammatory functions. Disrupting this complex suppresses inflammatory responses in vitro and in vivo. Class IIa HDACs are thus pivotal intermediates connecting TLR-inducible glycolysis to inflammation via Pkm2.

Identification of intracellular cavin target proteins reveals cavin-PP1alpha interactions regulate apoptosis.

Caveolae are specialized domains of the plasma membrane. Formation of these invaginations is dependent on the expression of Caveolin-1 or -3 and proteins of the cavin family. In response to stress, caveolae disassemble and cavins are released from caveolae, allowing cavins to potentially interact with intracellular targets. Here, we describe the intracellular (non-plasma membrane) cavin interactome using biotin affinity proteomics and mass spectrometry. We validate 47 potential cavin-interactor proteins using a cell-free expression system and protein-protein binding assays. These data, together with pathway analyses, reveal unknown roles for cavin proteins in metabolism and stress signaling. We validated the interaction between one candidate interactor protein, protein phosphatase 1 alpha (PP1α), and Cavin-1 and -3 and show that UV treatment causes release of Cavin3 from caveolae allowing interaction with, and inhibition of, PP1α. This interaction increases H2AX phosphorylation to stimulate apoptosis, identifying a pro-apoptotic signaling pathway from surface caveolae to the nucleus.

Caveolae.

Caveolae are one of the most abundant and striking features of the plasma membrane of many mammalian cell types. These surface pits have fascinated biologists since their discovery by the pioneers of electron microscopy in the middle of the last century, but we are only just starting to understand their multiple functions. Molecular understanding of caveolar formation is advancing rapidly and we now know that sculpting the membrane to generate the characteristic bulb-shaped caveolar pit involves the coordinated action of integral membrane proteins and peripheral membrane coat proteins in a process dependent on their multiple interactions with membrane lipids. The resulting structure is further stabilised by protein complexes at the caveolar neck. Caveolae can bud to generate an endocytic carrier but can also be disassembled in response to specific stimuli to function as a mechanoprotective device. These structures have also been linked to numerous signalling pathways. Here, we will briefly summarise the current molecular and structural understanding of caveolar formation and dynamics, discuss how the crucial structural components of caveolae work together to generate a dynamic sensing domain, and discuss the implications of recent studies on the diverse roles proposed for caveolae in different cells and tissues.

Molecular Basis for Membrane Recruitment by the PX and C2 Domains of Class II Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-C2α.

Phosphorylation of phosphoinositides by the class II phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) PI3K-C2α is essential for many processes, including neuroexocytosis and formation of clathrin-coated vesicles. A defining feature of the class II PI3Ks is a C-terminal module composed of phox-homology (PX) and C2 membrane interacting domains; however, the mechanisms that control their specific cellular localization remain poorly understood. Here we report the crystal structure of the C2 domain of PI3K-C2α in complex with the phosphoinositide head-group mimic inositol hexaphosphate, revealing two distinct pockets for membrane binding. The C2 domain preferentially binds to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate, and low-resolution structures of the combined PX-C2 module by small-angle X-ray scattering reveal a compact conformation in which cooperative lipid binding by each domain binding can occur. Finally, we demonstrate an unexpected role for calcium in perturbing the membrane interactions of the PX-C2 module, which we speculate may be important for regulating the activity of PI3K-C2α.

A phosphoinositide-binding cluster in cavin1 acts as a molecular sensor for cavin1 degradation.

Caveolae are abundant surface organelles implicated in a range of cellular processes. Two classes of proteins work together to generate caveolae: integral membrane proteins termed caveolins and cytoplasmic coat proteins called cavins. Caveolae respond to membrane stress by releasing cavins into the cytosol. A crucial aspect of this model is tight regulation of cytosolic pools of cavin under resting conditions. We now show that a recently identified region of cavin1 that can bind phosphoinositide (PI) lipids is also a major site of ubiquitylation. Ubiquitylation of lysines within this site leads to rapid proteasomal degradation. In cells that lack caveolins and caveolae, cavin1 is cytosolic and rapidly degraded as compared with cells in which cavin1 is associated with caveolae. Membrane stretching causes caveolar disassembly, release of cavin complexes into the cytosol, and increased proteasomal degradation of wild-type cavin1 but not mutant cavin1 lacking the major ubiquitylation site. Release of cavin1 from caveolae thus leads to exposure of key lysine residues in the PI-binding region, acting as a trigger for cavin1 ubiquitylation and down-regulation. This mutually exclusive PI-binding/ubiquitylation mechanism may help maintain low levels of cytosolic cavin1 in resting cells, a prerequisite for cavins acting as signaling modules following release from caveolae.

Structural insights into the organization of the cavin membrane coat complex.

Caveolae are cell-surface membrane invaginations that play critical roles in cellular processes including signaling and membrane homeostasis. The cavin proteins, in cooperation with caveolins, are essential for caveola formation. Here we show that a minimal N-terminal domain of the cavins, termed HR1, is required and sufficient for their homo- and hetero-oligomerization. Crystal structures of the mouse cavin1 and zebrafish cavin4a HR1 domains reveal highly conserved trimeric coiled-coil architectures, with intersubunit interactions that determine the specificity of cavin-cavin interactions. The HR1 domain contains a basic surface patch that interacts with polyphosphoinositides and coordinates with additional membrane-binding sites within the cavin C terminus to facilitate membrane association and remodeling. Electron microscopy of purified cavins reveals the existence of large assemblies, composed of a repeating rod-like structural element, and we propose that these structures polymerize through membrane-coupled interactions to form the unique striations observed on the surface of caveolae in vivo.

Closely related oxidized phospholipids differentially modulate the physicochemical properties of lipid particles.

Oxidation of glycerophospholipids results in the formation of large variety of oxidized phospholipid products that differs significantly in their chemical compositions and molecular structures. Biological activities of these oxidized products also differ considerably. Here we report the comparisons of the physicochemical properties of non-oxidized phospholipid particle containing two closely related tOx-PLs: 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-keto-6-octendioyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (KOdiA-PC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-(9-keto-10-dodecendioyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (KDdiA-PC). DMPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) was used as a model membrane non-oxidized phospholipid. Physicochemical properties of the lipid particles were characterized by using fluorescence spectroscopy, native polyacrylamide gel and agarose gel electrophoresis. Our result shows that the presence of closely related tOx-PLs, which differ only in the chemical composition of the oxidized fatty acyl chains at the sn-2 position, exerts considerably different effect on the physicochemical properties of non-oxidized phospholipid particles containing them.