Recurrence of melanoma following T cell treatment: continued antigen expression in a tumor that evades T cell recruitment.

Clinical therapy with T cells shows promise for cancer patients, but is currently challenged by incomplete responses and tumor relapse. The exact mechanisms that contribute to tumor relapse remain largely unclear. Here, we treated mouse melanomas with T cell receptor-engineered T cells directed against a human peptide-major histocompatibility complex antigen in immune-competent mice. T cells resulted in significant tumor regression, which was followed by relapse in about 80-90% of mice. Molecular analysis revealed that relapsed tumors harbored nonmutated antigen genes, not silenced by promoter methylation, and functionally expressed surface antigen at levels equal to nontreated tumors. Relapsed tumors resisted a second in vivo T cell treatment, but regained sensitivity to T cell treatment upon retransplantation in mice. Notably, relapsed tumors demonstrated decreased levels of CD8 T cells and monocytes, which were substantiated by downregulated expression of chemoattractants and adhesion molecules. These observations were confirmed when using T cells specific for a less immunogenic, endogenous mouse melanoma antigen. We conclude that tumors, when exposed to T cell treatment, can relapse without loss of antigen and develop a milieu that evades recruitment of effector CD8 T cells. Our findings support the concept to target the tumor milieu to aid T cell therapy in limiting tumor relapse.

Combination of IL-21 and IL-15 enhances tumour-specific cytotoxicity and cytokine production of TCR-transduced primary T cells.

IL-21, and to a lesser extent IL-15, inhibits differentiation of antigen-primed CD8 T cells and promotes their homeostasis and anti-tumour activity. Here, we investigated molecular mechanisms behind tumour-specific responses of primary murine T lymphocytes engineered to express a TCR directed against human gp100/HLA-A2 following short-term exposure to IL-15 and/or IL-21. We demonstrated that IL-15 + IL-21, and to a lesser extent IL-21, enhanced antigen-specific T-cell cytotoxicity, which was related to enhanced expression of granzymes A and B, and perforin 1. Furthermore, IL-15 + IL-21 synergistically enhanced release levels and kinetics of T-cell IFNgamma and IL-2, but not IL-10. Enhanced secretion of IFNgamma was accompanied by increased gene expression and cytosolic protein content, and was restricted to effector memory T cells. To summarize, we show that IL-15 + IL-21 improves antigen-specific responses of TCR-transduced effector T cells at multiple levels, which provides a rationale to treat T cells with a combination of these cytokines prior to their use in adoptive TCR gene therapy.

The therapeutic efficacy of the oncolytic virus Delta24-RGD in a murine glioma model depends primarily on antitumor immunity.

Oncolytic viruses selectively lyse tumor cells, making these agents a promising treatment modality for glioma. Accumulating data suggest that the immune system plays an important role in the anti-glioma activity of oncolytic viruses. In an immune competent glioma model, the therapeutic effect of the oncolytic adenovirus Delta24-RGD was found to depend primarily on antitumor immune responses.

The in vivo therapeutic efficacy of the oncolytic adenovirus Delta24-RGD is mediated by tumor-specific immunity.

The oncolytic adenovirus Delta24-RGD represents a new promising therapeutic agent for patients with a malignant glioma and is currently under investigation in clinical phase I/II trials. Earlier preclinical studies showed that Delta24-RGD is able to effectively lyse tumor cells, yielding promising results in various immune-deficient glioma models. However, the role of the immune response in oncolytic adenovirus therapy for glioma has never been explored. To this end, we assessed Delta24-RGD treatment in an immune-competent orthotopic mouse model for glioma and evaluated immune responses against tumor and virus. Delta24-RGD treatment led to long-term survival in 50% of mice and this effect was completely lost upon administration of the immunosuppressive agent dexamethasone. Delta24-RGD enhanced intra-tumoral infiltration of F4/80+ macrophages, CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells, and increased the local production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In treated mice, T cell responses were directed to the virus as well as to the tumor cells, which was reflected in the presence of protective immunological memory in mice that underwent tumor rechallenge. Together, these data provide evidence that the immune system plays a vital role in the therapeutic efficacy of oncolytic adenovirus therapy of glioma, and may provide angles to future improvements on Delta24-RGD therapy.

Magnetic-activated cell sorting of TCR-engineered T cells, using tCD34 as a gene marker, but not peptide-MHC multimers, results in significant numbers of functional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.

T cell-sorting technologies with peptide-MHC multimers or antibodies against gene markers enable enrichment of antigen-specific T cells and are expected to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of clinical T cell therapy. However, a direct comparison between sorting reagents for their ability to enrich T cells is lacking. Here, we compared the in vitro properties of primary human T cells gene-engineered with gp100(280-288)/HLA-A2-specific T cell receptor-αß (TCRαß) on magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) with various peptide-MHC multimers or an antibody against truncated CD34 (tCD34). With respect to peptide-MHC multimers, we observed that Streptamer(®), when compared with pentamers and tetramers, improved T cell yield as well as level and stability of enrichment, of TCR-engineered T cells (>65% of peptide-MHC-binding T cells, stable for at least 6 weeks). In agreement with these findings, Streptamer, the only detachable reagent, revealed significant T cell expansion in the first week after MACS. Sorting TCR and tCD34 gene-engineered T cells with CD34 monoclonal antibody (mAb) resulted in the most significant T cell yield and enrichment of T cells (>95% of tCD34 T cells, stable for at least 6 weeks). Notably, T cells sorted with CD34 mAb, when compared with Streptamer, bound about 2- to 3-fold less peptide-MHC but showed superior antigen-specific upregulated expression of CD107a and production of interferon (IFN)-γ. Multiparametric flow cytometry revealed that CD4(+) T cells, uniquely present in CD34 mAb-sorted T cells, contributed to enhanced IFN-γ production. Taken together, we postulate that CD34 mAb-based sorting of gene-marked T cells has benefits toward applications of T cell therapy, especially those that require CD4(+) T cells.

T-cell receptor gene therapy in human melanoma-bearing immune-deficient mice: human but not mouse T cells recapitulate outcome of clinical studies.

Adoptive cell therapy using T-cell receptor (TCR)-engineered T cells is a clinically feasible and promising approach to target tumors, but is currently faced with compromised antitumor efficacies in patients. Here, we extensively validated immune-deficient mice to facilitate further development of the therapeutic potential of TCR-engineered T cells. Treatment of human melanoma-bearing SCID or NSG mice with high doses of human T cells transduced with an hgp100/HLA-A2-specific TCR did not result in antitumor responses irrespective of chemotherapeutic preconditioning. Imaging of human green fluorescent protein-labeled T cells demonstrated significant T-cell accumulation in intratumoral vasculature directly upon T-cell transfer, which was followed by loss of T cells within 72 hr. Peripheral persistence of human T cells was highly compromised and appeared related to T-cell differentiation. On the contrary, adoptive transfer (AT) of relatively low numbers of hgp100/HLA-A2 TCR-transduced mouse T cells resulted in rapid clearance of large established human melanomas. Unexpectedly and in contrast to reported studies with chimeric antibody receptor-engineered T cells, antitumor activity and homeostatic expansion of T cells were independent of TCR transgene as evidenced in two SCID strains and using two different human melanoma cell lines. Interestingly, the xeno-reactive melanoma response of mouse T cells appeared to be dictated by CD4(+) tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and did not require in vitro T-cell activation, retroviral gene transfer, or subcutaneous interleukin-2 support. Taken together, AT of human but not mouse T cells in human melanoma-bearing immune-deficient mice is in close accordance with clinical studies.

TCR gene-engineered T cell: limited T cell activation and combined use of IL-15 and IL-21 ensure minimal differentiation and maximal antigen-specificity.

Clinical TCR gene therapy of melanoma represents a feasible and promising treatment rationale yet is currently challenged by objective response rates that stay behind those observed with conventional adoptive T cell therapy. Here, the phenotype and function of TCR-transduced T cells, considered to determine the efficacy of TCR gene therapy, were studied in relation to T cell activation and cytokine treatments. We observed that the lectin Concanavalin A (ConA), and to a lesser extent anti-CD3 and CD28 mAbs (soluble CD3/CD28), resulted in functional surface expression of the TCRalphabeta transgenes and enhanced fractions of CD62L(hi), CD44(lo) naive T cells. T cell functions and limited T cell differentiation were most significant when T cells were treated with a combination of IL-15 and IL-21 rather than IL-2. In comparison, anti-CD3 and CD28 mAbs coated to either latex or polystyrene beads (polystyrene or latex CD3/CD28) resulted in improved TCR expression levels and enhanced T cell differentiation irrespective of cytokine treatment, with effects most pronounced for polystyrene CD3/CD28. T cells demonstrated enhanced cytotoxic activity and IFNgamma production when activated with CD3/CD28 beads and treated with IL-15 and IL-21, but at the same time displayed non-specific T cell responses. In contrast, ConA and soluble CD3/CD28 activations resulted in antigen-specific T cell responses. In short, we show that retroviral TCR engineering of primary T cells benefits from activation with ConA or soluble CD3/CD28 rather than immobilized anti-CD3 and CD28 mAbs with respect to T cell differentiation and antigen-specificity of T cell responses.