Voluntary torque production is unaffected by changes in local thermal sensation during normothermia and hyperthermia.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Hyperthermia reduces the human capacity to produce muscular force, which is associated with decreased neural drive: does mitigating a reduction in neural drive by altering localised thermal sensation help to preserve voluntary force output? What is the main finding and its importance? Altering thermal sensation by cooling and heating the head independent of core temperature did not change neural drive or benefit voluntary force production. Head cooling did slow the rate of rise in core temperature during heating, which may have practical applications in passive settings. ABSTRACT: This study investigated altered local head and neck thermal sensation on maximal and rapid torque production during voluntary contractions. Nine participants completed four visits in two environmental conditions: at rectal temperatures ∼39.5°C in hot (HOT; ∼50°C, ∼39% relative humidity) and ∼37°C in thermoneutral (NEU; ∼22°C, ∼46% relative humidity) conditions. Local thermal sensation was manipulated by heating in thermoneutral conditions and cooling in hot conditions. Evoked twitches and octets were delivered at rest. Maximum voluntary torque (MVT), normalised surface electromyography (EMG) and voluntary activation (VA) were assessed during brief maximal isometric voluntary contractions of the knee extensors. Rate of torque development (RTD) and EMG were measured during rapid voluntary contractions. MVT (P = 0.463) and RTD (P = 0.061) were similar between environmental conditions despite reduced VA (-6%; P = 0.047) and EMG at MVT (-31%; P = 0.019). EMG in the rapid voluntary contractions was also lower in HOT versus NEU during the initial 100 ms (-24%; P = 0.035) and 150 ms (-26%; P = 0.035). Evoked twitch (+70%; P < 0.001) and octet (+27%; P < 0.001) RTD during the initial 50 ms were greater in the HOT compared to NEU conditions, in addition to a faster relaxation rate of the muscle (-33%; P < 0.001). In conclusion, hyperthermia reduced neural drive without affecting voluntary torque, likely due to the compensatory effects of improved intrinsic contractile function and faster contraction and relaxation rates of the knee extensors. Changes in local thermal perception of the head and neck whilst hyperthermic or normothermic did not affect voluntary torque.

Heat acclimation reduces the effects of whole-body hyperthermia on knee-extensor relaxation rate, but does not affect voluntary torque production.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the effects of acute hyperthermia and heat acclimation (HA) on maximal and rapid voluntary torque production, and their neuromuscular determinants. METHODS: Ten participants completed 10 days of isothermic HA (50 °C, 50% rh) and had their knee-extensor neuromuscular function assessed in normothermic and hyperthermic conditions, pre-, after 5 and after 10 days of HA. Electrically evoked twitch and octet (300 Hz) contractions were delivered at rest. Maximum voluntary torque (MVT), surface electromyography (EMG) normalised to maximal M-wave, and voluntary activation (VA) were assessed during brief maximal isometric voluntary contractions. Rate of torque development (RTD) and normalised EMG were measured during rapid voluntary contractions. RESULTS: Acute hyperthermia reduced neural drive (EMG at MVT and during rapid voluntary contractions; P < 0.05), increased evoked torques (P < 0.05), and shortened contraction and relaxation rates (P < 0.05). HA lowered resting rectal temperature and heart rate after 10 days (P < 0.05), and increased sweating rate after 5 and 10 days (P < 0.05), no differences were observed between 5 and 10 days. The hyperthermia-induced reduction in twitch half-relaxation was attenuated after 5 and 10 days of HA, but there were no other effects on neuromuscular function either in normothermic or hyperthermic conditions. CONCLUSION: HA-induced favourable adaptations to the heat after 5 and 10 days of exposure, but there was no measurable benefit on voluntary neuromuscular function in normothermic or hyperthermic conditions. HA did reduce the hyperthermic-induced reduction in twitch half-relaxation time, which may benefit twitch force summation and thus help preserve voluntary torque in hot environmental conditions.

Keeping environmental physiology education up and running during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic provoked a need for rapid adaptation of teaching strategies and learning environments. Thus novel approaches, predominantly based on online/virtual platforms are needed to minimize the negative effects of the pandemic on teaching (and learning). Herein we describe our recent web-based symposium series on environmental physiology and ergonomics initiative as an example of such a strategy. We outline the ideas behind this series and its implementation, which could serve as an example of a useful joint interactive virtual educational environment that could be applied to any physiology subspecialty. Based on the feedback received from all stakeholders involved in the process, we strongly believe that such an approach can provide an excellent platform for all educational levels from undergraduate students up to seasoned academics. Importantly, the unrestricted availability (free registration and publication of recordings and student handouts) is an important consideration for the democratization of science and the inclusion of financially less well-supported students and academics.

The effect of cooling prior to and during exercise on exercise performance and capacity in the heat: a meta-analysis.

Exercise is impaired in hot, compared with moderate, conditions. The development of hyperthermia is strongly linked to the impairment and as a result various strategies have been investigated to combat this condition. This meta-analysis focused on the most popular strategy: cooling. Precooling has received the most attention but recently cooling applied during the bout of exercise has been investigated and both were reviewed. We conducted a literature search and retrieved 28 articles which investigated the effect of cooling administered either prior to (n=23) or during (n=5) an exercise test in hot (wet bulb globe temperature >26°C) conditions. Mean and weighted effect size (Cohen's d) were calculated. Overall, precooling has a moderate (d=0.73) effect on subsequent performance but the magnitude of the effect is dependent on the nature of the test. Sprint performance is impaired (d=-0.26) but intermittent performance and prolonged exercise are both improved following cooling (d=0.47 and d=1.91, respectively). Cooling during exercise has a positive effect on performance and capacity (d=0.76). Improvements were observed in studies with and without cooling-induced physiological alterations, and the literature supports the suggestion of a dose-response relationship among cooling, thermal strain and improvements in performance and capacity. In summary, precooling can improve subsequent intermittent and prolonged exercise performance and capacity in a hot environment but sprint performance is impaired. Cooling during exercise also has a positive effect on exercise performance and capacity in a hot environment.

Correction: Cold-Induced Vasodilation during Single Digit Immersion in 0°C and 8°C Water in Men and Women.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122592.].

Practical neck cooling and time-trial running performance in a hot environment.

The aim of this two-part experiment was to investigate the effect of cooling the neck on time-trial performance in hot conditions (~30°C; 50% RH). In Study A, nine participants completed a 75-min submaximal (~60% V(O2(max)) pre-load phase followed by a 15-min self-paced time-trial (TT) on three occasions: one with a cooling collar (CC(90)), one without a collar (NC(90)) and one with the collar uncooled (C(90)). In Study B, eight participants completed a 15-min TT twice: once with (CC(15)) and once without (NC(15)) a cooling collar. Time-trial performance was significantly improved in Study A in CC(90) (3,030 ± 485 m) compared to C(90) (2,741 ± 537 m; P = 0.008) and NC(90) (2,884 ± 571 m; P = 0.041). Fifteen-minute TT performance was unaffected by the collar in Study B (CC(15) = 3,239 ± 267 m; NC(15) = 3,180 ± 271 m; P = 0.351). The collar had no effect on rectal temperature, heart rate or RPE. There was no effect of cooling the neck on S100ß, cortisol, prolactin, adrenaline, noradrenaline or dopamine concentrations in Study A. Cooling the neck via a cooling collar can improve exercise performance in a hot environment but it appears that there may be a thermal strain threshold which must be breached to gain a performance benefit from the collar.

The effect of head and neck per-cooling on neuromuscular fatigue following exercise in the heat.

The effect of localised head and neck per-cooling on central and peripheral fatigue during high thermal strain was investigated. Fourteen participants cycled for 60 min at 50% peak oxygen uptake on 3 occasions: thermoneutral control (CON; 18 °C), hot (HOT; 35 °C), and HOT with head and neck cooling (HOTcooling). Maximal voluntary force (MVF) and central activation ratio (CAR) of the knee extensors were measured every 30 s during a sustained maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Triplet peak force was measured following cycling, before and after the MVC. Rectal temperatures were higher in HOTcooling (39.2 ± 0.6 °C) and HOT (39.3 ± 0.5 °C) than CON (38.1 ± 0.3 °C; P < 0.05). Head and neck thermal sensation was similar in HOTcooling (4.2 ± 1.4) and CON (4.4 ± 0.9; P > 0.05) but lower than HOT (5.9 ± 1.5; P < 0.05). MVF and CAR were lower in HOT than CON throughout the MVC (P < 0.05). MVF and CAR were also lower in HOTcooling than CON at 5, 60, and 120 s, but similar at 30 and 90 s into the MVC (P > 0.05). Furthermore, they were greater in HOTcooling than HOT at 30 s, whilst triplet peak force was preserved in HOT after MVC. These results provide evidence that central fatigue following exercise in the heat is partially attenuated with head and neck cooling, which may be at the expense of greater peripheral fatigue. Novelty Central fatigue was greatest during hyperthermia. Head and neck cooling partially attenuated the greater central fatigue in the heat. Per-cooling led to more voluntary force production and more peripheral fatigue.

Cold-induced vasodilation during single digit immersion in 0°C and 8°C water in men and women.

The present study compared the thermal responses of the finger to 0 and 8°C water immersion, two commonly used temperatures for cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) research. On two separate and counterbalanced occasions 15 male and 15 female participants immersed their index finger in 20°C water for 5 min followed by either 0 or 8°C water for 30 min. Skin temperature, cardiovascular and perceptual data were recorded. Secondary analyses were performed between sexes and comparing 0.5, 1 and 4°C CIVD amplitude thresholds. With a 0.5°C threshold, CIVD waves were more prevalent in 8°C (2 (1-3) than in 0°C (1.5 (0-3)), but the amplitude was lower (4.0 ± 2.3 v 9.2 ± 4.0°C). Mean, minimum and maximum finger temperatures were lower in 0°C during the 30 min immersion, and CIVD onset and peak time occurred later in 0°C. Thermal sensation was lower and pain sensation was higher in 0°C. There were no differences between males and females in any of the physiological or CIVD data with the exception of SBP, which was higher in males. Females reported feeling higher thermal sensations in 8°C and lower pain sensations in 0°C and 8°C compared to males. Fewer CIVD responses were observed when using a 4°C (1 (0-3)) threshold to quantify a CIVD wave compared to using a 1°C (2 (0-3)) or 0.5°C (2 (0-3)) amplitude. In conclusion, both 0 and 8 °C can elicit CIVD but 8°C may be more suitable when looking to optimise the number of CIVD waves while minimising participant discomfort. The CIVD response to water immersion does not appear to be influenced by sex. Researchers should consider the amplitude threshold that was used to determine a CIVD wave when interpreting previous data.

The effect of skin thermistor fixation method on weighted mean skin temperature.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of three different skin thermistor attachment methods on weighted mean skin temperature (WMT(sk)) at three different ambient temperatures (approximately 24 °C (TEMP); approximately 30 °C (WARM); approximately 35 °C (HOT)) compared to uncovered thermistors. Eleven, non-acclimated, volunteers completed three 5 min bouts of submaximal cycling (approximately 70 W mechanical work)-one at each environmental condition in sequential order (TEMP, WARM, HOT). One thermistor was fixed to the sternal notch whilst four skin thermistors were spaced at 3 cm intervals on each of the sites on the limbs as per the formula of Ramanathan (1964 J. Appl. Physiol. 19 531-3). Each thermistor was either held against the skin uncovered (UC) or attached with surgical acrylic film dressing (T); surgical acrylic film dressing and hypoallergenic surgical tape (TT) or surgical acrylic film dressing, hypoallergenic surgical tape and surgical bandage (TTC). The WMT(sk) calculated was significantly lower in UC compared to T, TT and TTC (p < 0.001, d = 0.46), in T compared to TT and TTC (p < 0.001, d = 0.33) and in TT compared to TTC (p < 0.001; d = 0.25). The mean differences (across the three temperatures) were + 0.27 ± 0.34 °C, + 0.52 ± 0.35 °C and + 0.82 ± 0.34 °C for T, TT and TTC, respectively. The results demonstrate that the method of skin thermistor attachment can result in the significant over-estimation of weighted mean skin temperature.

Neck cooling and running performance in the heat: single versus repeated application.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of sustained neck cooling during time trial running in a hot environment. METHODS: Seven nonacclimated, familiarized males completed three experimental 90-min preloaded time trials in the heat (30.4°C ± 0.1°C and 53% ± 2% relative humidity). During one of the trials, the, participants wore a cooling collar from the start (CC); in another, they wore a collar from the start which was replaced at 30-min intervals (CC(replaced)); and in the last trial, they wore no collar (NC). Participants ran for 75 min at 60% VO(2max) and then performed a 15-min time trial blinded from the distance ran. Distance ran, rectal temperature, neck skin temperature, HR, fluid loss and consumption, peripheral lactate, glucose, dopamine, serotonin and cortisol, RPE, thermal sensation, and feeling scales were recorded. Significance was set a priori at the P < 0.05 level. RESULTS: Participants ran further in CC (2779 ± 299 m) compared with NC (2597 ± 291 m, P = 0.007; d = 0.67) and in CC(replaced) (2776 ± 331 m) compared with NC (P = 0.008; d = 0.62). There was no difference in the distance covered in CC compared with that in CC(replaced) (P = 0.998). The collar lowered neck temperature (P < 0.001) and the thermal sensation of the neck region (P < 0.001) but had no effect on any of the other physiological, endocrinological, or perceptual variables. CONCLUSIONS: Cooling the surface of the neck improves time trial performance in a hot environment without altering physiological or neuroendocrinological responses. Maintenance of a lower neck temperature via the replacement of a CC has no additional benefit to an acute cooling intervention.

Cooling the neck region during exercise in the heat.

CONTEXT: Cooling the neck region can improve the ability to exercise in a hot environment. It might improve performance by dampening the perceived level of thermal strain, allowing individuals to override inhibitory signals. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the enhanced ability to exercise in a hot environment observed when cooling the neck region occurs because of dampening the perceived level of thermal strain experienced and the subsequent overriding of inhibitory signals. DESIGN: Crossover study. SETTING: Walk-in environmental chamber. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Eight endurance-trained, nonacclimated men (age  =  26 ± 2 years, height  =  1.79 ± 0.04 m, mass  =  77.0 ± 6.2 kg, maximal oxygen uptake [V˙O(2max)]  =  56.2 ± 9.2 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1)) participated. INTERVENTION(S): Participants completed 4 running tests at approximately 70% V˙O(2max) to volitional exhaustion: 2 familiarization trials followed by 2 experimental trials (cooling collar [CC] and no collar [NC]). Trials were separated by 7 days. Familiarization and NC trials were performed without a collar and used to assess the test variability. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Time to volitional exhaustion, heart rate, rectal temperature, neck skin temperature, rating of perceived exertion, thermal sensation, and feeling scale (pleasure/displeasure) were measured. RESULTS: Time to volitional exhaustion was increased by 13.5% ± 3.8% (CC  =  43.15 ± 12.82 minutes, NC  =  38.20 ± 11.70 minutes; t(7)  =  9.923, P < .001) with the CC, which reduced mean neck skin temperature throughout the test (P < .001). Participants terminated exercise at identical levels of perceived exertion, thermal sensation, and feeling scale, but the CC enabled participants to tolerate higher rectal temperatures (CC  =  39.61°C ± 0.45°C, NC  =  39.18°C ± 0.7°C; t(7)  =  -3.217, P  =  .02) and heart rates (CC  =  181 ± 6 beats/min, NC  =  178 ± 9 beats/min; t(7)  =  -2.664, P  =  .03) at the point of termination. CONCLUSIONS: Cooling the neck increased the time taken to reach volitional exhaustion by dampening the perceived levels of thermal strain.