Potential role of ATP-binding cassette transporters against acaricides in the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters have been shown to be involved in pesticide detoxification in arthropod vectors and are thought to contribute to the development of drug resistance. Little is currently known about the role they play in ticks, which are among the more important vectors of human and animal pathogens. Here, the role of ABC transporters in the transport of fipronil and ivermectin acaricides in the tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) was investigated. Larvae were treated with acaricide alone and acaricide in combination with a sub-lethal dose of the ABC transporter inhibitor cyclosporine A. The LC50 doses and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) estimated by mortality data using probit analysis were 67.930 p.p.m. (95% CI 53.780-90.861) for fipronil and 3741 p.p.m. (95% CI 2857-4647) for ivermectin. The pre-exposure of larvae to a sub-lethal dose of cyclosporine A reduced the LC50 dose of fipronil to 4.808 p.p.m. (95% CI 0.715-9.527) and that of ivermectin to 167 p.p.m. (95% CI 15-449), which increased toxicity by about 14- and 22-fold, respectively. The comparison of mortality data for each separate acaricide concentration showed the synergic effect of cyclosporine A to be reduced at higher concentrations of acaricide. These results show for the first time a strong association between ABC transporters and acaricide detoxification in R.sanguineus s.l.

Effects on male fitness of removing Wolbachia infections from the mosquito Aedes albopictus.

Cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) induced by maternally inherited Wolbachia bacteria is a potential tool for the suppression of insect pest species with appropriate patterns of infection. The Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae) is known to be infected by two strains of Wolbachia pipientis Hertig (Rickettsiales: Rickettsiaceae), wAlb A and wAlb B, throughout its geographical distribution. This infection pattern theoretically restricts the application of CI-based control strategies. However, Wolbachia can be horizontally transferred using embryonic microinjection to generate incompatible transfected lines harbouring a single new strain of Wolbachia. In order to assess the feasibility of this approach, the effects of Wolbachia removal on mosquito fitness need to be clearly evaluated as the removal of natural superinfection is an inescapable step of this approach. Previous research has shown that uninfected females, produced by antibiotic treatment, showed a decrease in fitness compared with those infected with Wolbachia. In this study, the effect of Wolbachia removal on male fitness was investigated. Longevity and reproductive potential (mating competitiveness and sperm capacity) were assessed in both laboratory cages and greenhouses. No differences were observed between uninfected and infected males with respect to longevity, mating rate, sperm capacity and mating competitiveness in either laboratory conditions or greenhouses. The preservation of fitness in males of Ae. albopictus deprived of natural Wolbachia infection is discussed in relation to the development of incompatible insect technique suppression strategies. Finally, the potential application of aposymbiotic males in mark-release-recapture studies is suggested.

Focal distribution of diflubenzuron resistance mutations in Culex pipiens mosquitoes from Northern Italy.

Insecticide resistance is a major threat for vector control and prevention of mosquito borne diseases. In the Culex pipiens mosquitoes, resistance against diflubenzuron (DFB) was firstly detected in Ravenna (Emilia-Romagna region, Northern Italy), in 2015. The resistant phenotypes were associated with two mutations, I1043 M and I1043 L, at the amino acid 1043 of the chitin synthase gene. In this study, we monitored the presence, frequency and geographical distribution of the DFB resistant mutations in Cx. pipiens populations from Northern Italy, and in populations from Greece and France. In the Emilia-Romagna region, the resistant mutations were detected in 20 out of the 30 populations analysed, reaching allelic frequencies over 70%. The presence and distribution of the resistance mutations was highly focal, with a clear pattern of increasing resistant allelic frequencies moving from the Western towards the Eastern provinces of Emilia-Romagna. Contrary to Italy, DFB resistant alleles were not detected in the Cx. pipiens mosquitoes sampled from Greece and France. Following statistical, literature and bibliographical database analyses on the history of DFB insecticide use in the study areas, we suggest that the selection pressures from the intense agricultural DFB applications occurring throughout the' 80-'90 s against orchard pests, followed, from 2000s onwards by mosquito control DFB applications, may account for the high mutation frequencies observed in the Cx. pipiens populations of the Eastern provinces of Emilia-Romagna. The findings are of major concern for public health in Italy and Europe, as DFB remains a very important insecticide used for controlling arbovirus mosquito vectors, where alternative larvicides are extremely limited.

Dynamics of mtDNA introgression during species range expansion: insights from an experimental longitudinal study.

Introgressive hybridization represents one of the long-lasting debated genetic consequences of species range expansion. Mitochondrial DNA has been shown to heavily introgress between interbreeding animal species that meet in new sympatric areas and, often, asymmetric introgression from local to the colonizing populations has been observed. Disentangling among the evolutionary and ecological processes that might shape this pattern remains difficult, because they continuously act across time and space. In this context, long-term studies can be of paramount importance. Here, we investigated the dynamics of mitochondrial introgression between two mosquito species (Aedes mariae and Ae. zammitii ) during a colonization event that started in 1986 after a translocation experiment. By analyzing 1,659 individuals across 25 years, we showed that introgression occurred earlier and at a higher frequency in the introduced than in the local species, showing a pattern of asymmetric introgression. Throughout time, introgression increased slowly in the local species, becoming reciprocal at most sites. The rare opportunity to investigate the pattern of introgression across time during a range expansion along with the characteristics of our study-system allowed us to support a role of demographic dynamics in determining the observed introgression pattern.

Characterization of the Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in Madagascar.

Morphological analysis of phallosome and multilocus electrophoresis were used to characterize populations of the Culex pipiens L. complex from Madagascar. Samples phenotypically and genetically corresponding to Cx. p. quinquefasciatus Say were found on the east and west coasts, whereas, on the high plateau, 1 sample was composed mostly of phenotypical Cx. p. pipiens L., genetically introgressed with quinquefasciatus at some loci (Hbdh, Aat-2, and Hk-1). A hybrid zone between the 2 taxa was detected on the plateau on a genetic basis, whereas at the morphological level a predominance of Cx. p. quinquefasciatus specimens and deficit of intermediates was observed. Accordingly, morphological analysis failed to describe satisfactorily the hybridization phenomena. Despite the high level of gene exchange, a complete mixing of the 2 gene pools apparently does not occur, possibly because of differential selective pressures in the climatically heterogeneous environment of the Madagascar plateau.

Californian hybrid zone between Culex pipiens pipiens and Cx. p. quinquefasciatus revisited (Diptera:Culicidae).

Phallosome morphology (DV/D ratio) and allozyme variation were used to reexamine the transition from Culex pipiens pipiens L. to Cx. p. quinquefasciatus Say, detected in California from the northern Central Valley to the Mexican border of the United States of America. Significant deficiency of heterozygotes was observed at the diagnostic locus Mdhp-2 in populations from the central part of the hybrid zone. Long tails of introgression were detected: populations from both north and south ends of the transect were not genetically pure Cx. p. pipiens or Cx. p. quinquefasciatus, respectively, as previously considered, but included approximately 5% introgressed individuals. A narrow reversed cline from the Delta area into the Sacramento Valley, characterized by increasing frequencies of Cx. p. quinquefasciatus alleles proceeding to the north, was confirmed. Both these cline appear to be related mainly to temperature gradients. Over the last 50 yr, an increase in the proportion of Cx. p. pipiens DV/D phenotypes was detected proceeding north to south along the main latitudinal cline, as well as in the narrow reversed cline. Accordingly, the center of the main latitudinal hybrid zone has apparently moved approximately 100 km to the south. This phenomenon is only partially paralleled by the differentiated locus Pgm of the 3 for which comparison was possible. Similarities to and differences from previous studies are discussed, also in relation with comparable data from another hybrid zone between Cx. p. pipiens and Cx. p. quinquefasciatus recently detected in Madagascar. Hybrid index scores based on differentiated allozymes and the diagnostic locus Mdhp-2 prove to be better descriptors than the DV/D ratio of hybridization and introgression occurring between Cx. p. pipiens and Cx. p. quinquefasciatus. This seems to be caused mainly by the influence of temperature on male genitalia development, and the weaker association found between genetic markers and DV/D phenotypes in hybrid populations.

Genetic distance between two sibling species of the Aedes mariae complex (Diptera, Culicidae).

Two sibling species of the mariae complex of the Aedes genus have been studied: Ae. mariae and Ae. zammitii. Thee mosquitoes are allopatric and show similar adaptations to rocky mediterranean coasts. The isolating mechanisms between the two species are well studied. A partial sterility of hybrid F1, limited to males, has been found with laboratory cross experiments. Strong pre-mating isolating mechanisms were shown in nature by means of release experiments, the frequency of hybrids never exceeding 2% without evidence of introgression. We analyzed genetic variation at 26 enzyme loci in a population of each species: 35% of loci were polymorphic, with an observed mean heterozygosity of 0.07 in Ae. mariae and 0.06 in Ae. zammitii; 6 loci allow discrimination between the two species at a probability of at least .99. Nei's measures of genetic identity and genetic distance are respectively I = 0.6096 and D = 0.2828. The distribution of genetic identities relative to loci is strongly bimodal, reflecting a different contribution of highly variable and fast evolving loci on one side and conservative and slowly evolving loci on the other. We consider, on the base of various experimental data (see Powell, 1975), in the first class ("fast evolving" loci) both variable substrate and regulatory enzymes, in the second ("slow evolving" loci) non regulatory enzymes. Values of genetic distance calculated separately for the "fast" (54% of the loci studied) and "slow" (46%) evolving loci are respectively Df = 0.41 and Ds = 0.03, showing that the main contribution to genetic distance in the first period of divergence is due to fast evolving loci, whose rate of evolution is about ten times more rapid with respect to slow evolving loci.

Defence mechanisms against insecticides temephos and diflubenzuron in the mosquito Aedes caspius: the P-glycoprotein efflux pumps.

P-glycoproteins (P-gps) are efflux transporters found in cells of a broad range of both procaryotic and eukaryotic taxa, whose action is to relieve the cells of multiple, structurally dissimilar, toxic compounds. The possible role of P-gps in defence against the insecticides temephos and diflubenzuron was investigated in the mosquito Aedes caspius (Pallas), also known as Ochlerotatus (Aedes) caspius (Diptera: Culicidae), and the genomic DNA sequences encoding for P-gp transporters were isolated to provide molecular instruments for future research into the expression and characterization of genes codifying for P-gps in this mosquito species. Mosquito larvae were treated with insecticides alone and in conjunction with a sublethal dose of the P-gp inhibitor verapamil. The inhibition of P-gps reduced the LD(50) values of temephos and diflubenzuron by factors of 3.5 and 16.4, respectively, suggesting the potential involvement of P-gps in insecticide defence. Using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based approach, a 481-bp sequence was isolated. The inferred nucleotide sequence shows high homology with the C-terminal sequence of known P-gps. The isolation and characterization of a putative P-gp sequence from Ae. caspius is the first step towards a better molecular understanding of the role played by multidrug transporters in the defence against insecticides in this species. This knowledge may open the way to a novel control strategy based on the inhibition of pest defences. The beneficial consequences of the inhibition of efflux pumps in improving insecticide performance are discussed.

DNA-fingerprinting (AFLP and RFLP) for genotypic identification in species of the Pleurotus eryngii complex.

Wild populations of edible species are important source of genetic variability for cultivated lines that can undergo a drastic loss of diversity resulting from man's selection. The development of tools aimed at the clear-cut and safe identification and assessment of genetic variability of the wild and cultivated strains is thus a fundamental goal of molecular genetic research. In this study, we used two polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based fingerprinting methods-amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of laccase and manganese peroxidase genes-to assess genetic differences among strains and independently evolving lineages belonging to the Pleurotus eryngii complex. Both laccase RFLP and AFLP have been proved to distinguish unambiguously the three taxa studied: Pleurotus ferulae, P. eryngii, and P. eryngii var. nebrodensis. AFLP also showed enough sensitivity to detect polymorphisms among the strains, proving to be an efficient DNA fingerprinting tool in studies of strain assignment. The divergent RFLP laccase and manganese peroxidase patterns are also discussed in relation to the role played by these genes in the interaction between these fungi and their host plants.

Genetic divergence and reproductive isolation in the Ochthebius (Calobius) complex (Coleoptera: Hydraenidae).

The reproductive isolation in hydrenid beetles of the Ochthebius complex was studied by analysing gene exchange in natural populations of O. quadricollis, Ochthebius sp. A and O. brevicollis steinbuehleri collected along the Mediterranean coasts. The ranges of these three species are largely allopatric, but sympatric areas were detected between contiguous taxa, ie, O. quadricollis and Ochthebius sp. A; Ochthebius sp. A and O. b. steinbuehleri. Three levels of reproductive isolation and genetic divergence were observed. One level involves extensive intraspecific genetic divergence within the biological species O. quadricollis, Ochthebius sp. A and O. brevicollis, associated with both physical barriers (eg, sea and sand stretches) and the low dispersal capacity of larvae and adults. The finding of transitional samples between the most differentiated population groups should indicate, however, that there is still some gene flow between the populations of the three taxa. Another level is found between Ochthebius sp. A and O. b. steinbuehleri, whose gene pools appear to be fairly distinct in spite of the fact that reproductive isolation is still incomplete: in their few syntopic sites, some F1 hybrids appeared indeed to have lower fitness, since backcrosses or recombinant genotypes were never observed. The final level in the evolution of reproductive isolation (full reproductive isolation) has been achieved by the species O. quadricollis and Ochthebius sp. A. No F1 or F(n) hybrids, nor backcrosses were found in their sympatric areas. The relative importance of ecological factors and evolutionary forces in the prevention of gene exchange between taxa are discussed.

Genetic diversity and population structure of the Italian fungi belonging to the taxa Pleurotus eryngii (DC.:Fr.) Quèl and P. ferulae (DC.:Fr.) Quèl.

A study using allozymes and PCR fingerprinting was conducted to estimate the genetic diversity of Italian populations of two economically important cultivated fungal taxa, Pleurotus eryngii and P. ferulae. Very little is known about the genetic diversity distribution pattern of these taxa. Heterozygote deficiency was observed at few loci; in fact the inbreeding coefficients were not high, which demonstrates that mechanisms restrain the inbreeding act at the local level. Estimates of genetic differentiation indicated a pattern of greater variation within, rather than between, populations. These results were supported by AMOVA analysis, which attributed a low proportion of the total genetic variation to large geographical scale divergence, and indicated that most of the genetic diversity was because of differences within populations. This distribution pattern of genetic variation of P. eryngii and P. ferulae populations seems to be the result of high gene flow, by efficient basidiospore dispersal, and outcrossing mechanisms, which restrain inbreeding within populations.

Population structure of Aedes albopictus (Skuse): the mosquito which is colonizing Mediterranean countries.

Multilocus electrophoresis analysis has been used to study the genetic structure of 18 populations of Aedes albopictus newly introduced to Italy, in comparison with two populations in the United States, four in Japan, and four in Indonesia. Allozyme analysis revealed that 15 out of the 18 studied loci were polymorphic among the 28 populations. No significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were found at polymorphic loci. High genetic affinity was observed between the Italian populations and those from the United States and Japan. The analysis of variance in allele frequencies showed that variance among subpopulations accounted for most of the total variance, suggesting that isolation of the Italian populations is not related to distance. Analysis of linkage disequilibrium using Ohta's method shows that the variance in the frequency of allele combinations could be explained by the action of the genetic drift which accompanies the establishment of new populations. The colonization process of Ae. albopictus in Italy is following a trend similar to that previously observed in the U.S. A., probably because both infestations derive from several successive introductions, each with large numbers of individuals.

Early physiological and cytological events induced by wounding in potato tuber.

The response of potato tuber (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Kennebec) to mechanical wounding was investigated at different times. Changes in the levels of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOHs) were monitored up to 120 min after wounding and related to the cytological events occurring up to 24 h. Twenty minutes after injury, an increase in IAA and LOOH levels and a decrease in the levels of PUFAs was observed. Wounding induced mitoses in differentiated (parenchyma) cells starting at 120 min, and promoted an increase of mitotic activity in the meristematic cells (procambium and bud dome), after 360 min. The inhibition of the increase in LOOHs and IAA by lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitors, as well as the ability of in vitro peroxidated linoleic acid to enhance IAA production, suggest a close relationship among lipoperoxidation, IAA and mitotic activity in the response of potato tuber cells to injury, resulting in a specific growth response, i.e. bud growth and periderm formation.