Adrenergic responses to cognitive activity in a cold environment.

Adrenergic responses during physical stress such as cold exposure have been reported to differ from those responses observed during cognitive activity. Both the separate and the combined effects of cold and cognitive activity on catecholamine activity were examined in six male subjects. Alterations in plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine showed different patterns as a function of exposure to a 4 degrees C cold environment, a cognitive performance assessment battery (PAB), and the two conditions combined. Plasma epinephrine was not altered by exposure to cold and only slightly increased by PAB performance when given at 23 degrees C. However, epinephrine was substantially elevated by exposure to combined cold and PAB. Heart rate changes paralleled observed changes in epinephrine. Norepinephrine release was predominantly increased by cold exposure and was not altered by PAB performance.

Combined eye activity measures accurately estimate changes in sustained visual task performance.

Five concurrent eye activity measures were used to model fatigue-related changes in performance during a visual compensatory tracking task. Nine participants demonstrated considerable variations in performance level during two 53-min testing sessions in which continuous video-based eye activity measures were obtained. Using a trackball, participants were required to maneuver a target disk (destabilized by pseudorandom wind forces) within the center of an annulus on a CRT display. Mean tracking performance as a function of time across 18 sessions demonstrated a monotonic increase in error from 0 to 11 min, and a performance plateau thereafter. Individual performance fluctuated widely around this trend - with an average root mean square (RMS) error of 2.3 disk radii. For each participant, moving estimates of blink duration and frequency, fixation dwell time and frequency, and mean pupil diameter were analyzed using non-linear regression and artificial neural network techniques. Individual models were derived using eye and performance data from one session and cross-validated on data from a second session run on a different day. A general regression model (based only on fixation dwell time and frequency) trained on data from both sessions from all participants produced a correlation of estimated to actual tracking performance of R=0.68 and an RMS error of 1.55 (S. D.=0.26) disk radii. Individual non-linear regression models containing a general linear model term produced the cross-session correlations of estimated to actual tracking performance of R=0.67. Individualized neural network models derived from the data of both experimental sessions produced the lowest RMS error (mean=1.23 disk radii, S.D.=0.13) and highest correlation (R=0.82) between eye activity-based estimates and actual tracking performance. Results suggest that information from multiple eye measures may be combined to produce accurate individualized real-time estimates of sub-minute scale performance changes during sustained tasks.

Moderate cold exposure shortens evoked potential latencies in humans.

Visual, auditory event-related potentials, and brainstem auditory-evoked responses were recorded in as many as six young male subjects in order to study the effects of moderate cold air exposure on central nervous system functioning. Evoked potentials were recorded during repeated 50-min exposures to air of 4 and 22 degrees C; these levels of exposure resulted in no change in rectal core temperature. Evoked potentials recorded during exposures to 4 degrees air displayed consistently shorter latencies compared to those recorded at 22 degrees, suggesting faster CNS processing of sensory stimuli in the cold. These results are consistent with recent investigations of cold-induced behavioral response changes which indicate that increased arousal may occur with moderate (nonhypothermic) cold exposure.

Spatial frequency-dependent asymmetry of visual evoked potential amplitudes.

The extent to which pattern reversal evoked potential amplitudes are distributed symmetrically over the scalp was investigated as a function of stimulus spatial frequency. Nine right-handed male subjects viewed sinusoidal grating stimuli of 4.0 and 0.5 c/deg phase reversed every 900 msec. A visual half-field configuration enabled selective stimulation of the right- or left-hemisphere visual cortex. Evoked responses were recorded from the 2 cm above the inion (Oz) and at 7 and 13 cm lateral to Oz. Analyses of normalized evoked response amplitudes showed a significant asymmetry for the 4.0 c/deg stimulus; right-hemisphere amplitudes declined as a function of distance from the midline, while left-hemisphere amplitudes were greatest at the 7 cm recording site. No hemispheric differences were observed for the 0.5 c/deg stimulus; amplitudes for both hemispheres declined as a function of distance from the midline. The data are discussed in terms of hemispheric differences in morphology and functional asymmetries at early levels of sensory processing.

Redundant use of luminance and flashing with shape and color as highlighting codes in symbolic displays.

Three visual search experiments evaluated the benefits and distracting effects of using luminance and flashing to highlight subclasses of symbols coded by shape and color. Each of three general shape/color classes (circular/blue, diamond/red, square/yellow) was divided into three subclasses by presenting the upper half, lower half, or entire symbol. Increasing the luminance of a subclass by a factor of two did not result in a significant improvement in search performance. Flashing a subclass at a rate of 3 Hz resulted in a significantly shorter mean search time (48% improvement). Increasing the luminance of one subclass (by a factor of five) while simultaneously flashing another significantly improved search times by 31% and 43% respectively, compared with nonhighlighted search conditions. In each experiment, the search times for nonhighlighted target subclasses were not affected by the presence of brighter and flashing targets. The failure of the initial experiment to find a significant performance improvement caused by increasing symbol luminance suggested that a larger luminance increase was necessary for this code to be effective. The overall results suggest that using luminance and flashing to highlight subclasses of color- and shape-coded symbols can reduce search times for these subclasses without producing a distraction effect by way of a concomitant increase in the search times for unhighlighted symbols.

Eye activity correlates of workload during a visuospatial memory task.

Changes in six measures of eye activity were assessed as a function of task workload in a target identification memory task. Eleven participants completed four 2-hr blocks of a mock anti-air-warfare task, in which they were required to examine and remember target classifications (friend/enemy) for subsequent prosecution (fire upon/allow to pass), while targets moved steadily toward two centrally located ship icons. Target density served as the task workload variable; between one and nine targets were simultaneously present on the display. For each participant, moving estimates of blink frequency and duration, fixation frequency and dwell time, saccadic extent, and mean pupil diameter, integrated over periods of 10 to 20 s, demonstrated systematic changes as a function of target density. Nonlinear regression analyses found blink frequency, fixation frequency, and pupil diameter to be the most predictive variables relating eye activity to target density. Participant-specific artificial neural network models, developed through training on two or three sessions and subsequently tested on a different session from the same participant, correlated well with actual target density levels (mean R = 0.66). Results indicate that moving mean estimation and artificial neural network techniques enable information from multiple eye measures to be combined to produce reliable near-real-time indicators of workload in some visuospatial tasks. Potential applications include the monitoring of visual activity of system opetators for indications of visual workload and scanning efficiency.