Significant accrual of soil organic carbon through long-term rice cultivation in paddy fields in China.

Paddy fields serve as significant reservoirs of soil organic carbon (SOC) and their potential for terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration is closely associated with changes in SOC pools. However, there has been a dearth of comprehensive studies quantifying changes in SOC pools following extended periods of rice cultivation across a broad geographical scale. Using 104 rice paddy sampling sites that have been in continuous cultivation since the 1980s across China, we studied the changes in topsoil (0-20 cm) labile organic C (LOC I), semi-labile organic C (LOC II), recalcitrant organic C (ROC), and total SOC. We found a substantial increase in both the content (48%) and density (39%) of total SOC within China's paddy fields between the 1980s to the 2010s. Intriguingly, the rate of increase in content and density of ROC exceeded that of LOC (I and II). Using a structural equation model, we revealed that changes in the content and density of total SOC were mainly driven by corresponding shifts in ROC, which are influenced both directly and indirectly by climatic and soil physicochemical factors; in particular temperature, precipitation, phosphorous (P) and clay content. We also showed that the δ13 CLOC were greater than δ13 CROC , independent of the rice cropping region, and that there was a significant positive correlation between δ13 CSOC and δ13 Cstraw . The δ13 CLOC and δ13 CSOC showed significantly negative correlation with soil total Si, suggesting that soil Si plays a part in the allocation of C into different SOC pools, and its turnover or stabilization. Our study underscores that the global C sequestration of the paddy fields mainly stems from the substantial increase in ROC pool.

Microbial Necromass, Lignin, and Glycoproteins for Determining and Optimizing Blue Carbon Formation.

Coastal wetlands contribute to the mitigation of climate change through the sequestration of "blue carbon". Microbial necromass, lignin, and glycoproteins (i.e., glomalin-related soil proteins (GRSP)), as important components of soil organic carbon (SOC), are sensitive to environmental change. However, their contributions to blue carbon formation and the underlying factors remain largely unresolved. To address this paucity of knowledge, we investigated their contributions to blue carbon formation along a salinity gradient in coastal marshes. Our results revealed decreasing contributions of microbial necromass and lignin to blue carbon as the salinity increased, while GRSP showed an opposite trend. Using random forest models, we showed that their contributions to SOC were dependent on microbial biomass and resource stoichiometry. In N-limited saline soils, contributions of microbial necromass to SOC decreased due to increased N-acquisition enzyme activity. Decreases in lignin contributions were linked to reduced mineral protection offered by short-range-ordered Fe (FeSRO). Partial least-squares path modeling (PLS-PM) further indicated that GRSP could increase microbial necromass and lignin formation by enhancing mineral protection. Our findings have implications for improving the accumulation of refractory and mineral-bound organic matter in coastal wetlands, considering the current scenario of heightened nutrient discharge and sea-level rise.

From cane to nano: advanced nanomaterials derived from sugarcane products with insights into their synthesis and applications.

Sugarcane-based products are inherently rich in elements such as silicon, carbon and nitrogen. As such, these become ideal precursors for utilization in a wide array of application fields. One of the appealing areas is to transform them into nanomaterials of high interest that can be employed in several prominent applications. Among nanomaterials, sugarcane products based on silica nanoparticles (SNPs), carbon dots (CDs), metal/metal oxide-based NPs, nanocellulose, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), and nano biochar are becoming increasingly reported. Through manipulation of the experimental conditions and choosing suitable starting precursors and elements, it is possible to devise these nanomaterials with highly desired properties suited for specific applications. The current review presents the findings from the recent literature wherein an effort has been made to convey new development in the field of sugarcane-based products for the synthesis of the above-mentioned nanomaterials. Various nanomaterials were systematically discussed in terms of their synthesis and application perspectives. Wherever possible, a comparative analysis was carried out to highlight the potential of sugarcane products for the intended purpose as compared to other biomass-based materials. This review is expected to stand out in delivering an up-to-date survey of the literature and provide readers with necessary directions for future research.

This review focuses on sugarcane-derived nanomaterials such as silica, nano cellulose, nanofibers, nanocrystals and metal/nonmetal nanoparticles and their application in various energy and environmental fields.

Formation of soil organic carbon pool is regulated by the structure of dissolved organic matter and microbial carbon pump efficacy: A decadal study comparing different carbon management strategies.

To achieve long-term increases in soil organic carbon (SOC) storage, it is essential to understand the effects of carbon management strategies on SOC formation pathways, particularly through changes in microbial necromass carbon (MNC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Using a 14-year field study, we demonstrate that both biochar and maize straw lifted the SOC ceiling, but through different pathways. Biochar, while raising SOC and DOC content, decreased substrate degradability by increasing carbon aromaticity. This resulted in suppressed microbial abundance and enzyme activity, which lowered soil respiration, weakened in vivo turnover and ex vivo modification for MNC production (i.e., low microbial carbon pump "efficacy"), and led to lower efficiency in decomposing MNC, ultimately resulting in the net accumulation of SOC and MNC. In contrast, straw incorporation increased the content and decreased the aromaticity of SOC and DOC. The enhanced SOC degradability and soil nutrient content, such as total nitrogen and total phosphorous, stimulated the microbial population and activity, thereby boosting soil respiration and enhancing microbial carbon pump "efficacy" for MNC production. The total C added to biochar and straw plots were estimated as 27.3-54.5 and 41.4 Mg C ha-1 , respectively. Our results demonstrated that biochar was more efficient in lifting the SOC stock via exogenous stable carbon input and MNC stabilization, although the latter showed low "efficacy". Meanwhile, straw incorporation significantly promoted net MNC accumulation but also stimulated SOC mineralization, resulting in a smaller increase in SOC content (by 50%) compared to biochar (by 53%-102%). The results address the decadal-scale effects of biochar and straw application on the formation of the stable organic carbon pool in soil, and understanding the causal mechanisms can allow field practices to maximize SOC content.

Inducing Inorganic Carbon Accrual in Subsoil through Biochar Application on Calcareous Topsoil.

Biochar amendments add persistent organic carbon to soil and can stabilize rhizodeposits and existing soil organic carbon (SOC), but effects of biochar on subsoil carbon stocks have been overlooked. We quantified changes in soil inorganic carbon (SIC) and SOC to 2 m depth 10 years after biochar application to calcareous soil. The total soil carbon (i.e., existing SOC, SIC, and biochar-C) increased by 71, 182, and 210% for B30, B60, and B90, respectively. Biochar application at 30, 60, and 90 t ha-1 rates significantly increased SIC by 10, 38, and 68 t ha-1, respectively, with accumulation mainly occurring in the subsoil (below 1 m). This huge increase of SIC (mainly CaCO3) is ∼100 times larger than the inorganic carbon present in the added biochar (0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 t ha-1). The benzene polycarboxylic acid method showed that the biochar-amended soil contained more black carbon particles (6.8 times higher than control soil) in the depth of 1.4-1.6 m, which provided the direct quantitative evidence for biochar migration into subsoil after a decade. Spectral and energy spectrum analysis also showed an obvious biochar structure in the biochar-amended subsoil, accompanied by a Ca/Mg carbonate cluster, which provided further evidence for downward migration of biochar after a decade. To explain SIC accumulation in subsoil with biochar amendment, the interacting mechanisms are proposed: (1) biochar amendment significantly increases subsoil pH (0.3-0.5 units) 10 years after biochar application, thus forming a favorable pH environment in the subsoil to precipitate HCO3-; and (2) the transported biochar in subsoil can act as nuclei to precipitate SIC. Biochar amendment enhanced SIC by up to 80%; thus, the effects on carbon stocks in subsoil must be understood to inform strategies for carbon dioxide removal through biochar application. Our study provided critical knowledge on the impact of biochar application to topsoil on carbon stocks in subsoil in the long term.

High potential of stable carbon sequestration in phytoliths of China's grasslands.

Phytolith carbon (C) sequestration plays a key role in mitigating global climate change at a centennial to millennial time scale. However, previous estimates of phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC) storage and potential in China's grasslands have large uncertainties mainly due to multiple data sources. This contributes to the uncertainty in predicting long-term C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems using Earth System Models. In this study, we carried out an intensive field investigation (79 sites, 237 soil profiles [0-100 cm], and 61 vegetation assessments) to quantify PhytOC storage in China's grasslands and to better explore the biogeographical patterns and influencing factors. Generally, PhytOC production flux and soil PhytOC density in both the Tibetan Plateau and the Inner Mongolian Plateau had a decreasing trend from the Northeast to the Southwest. The aboveground PhytOC production rate in China's grassland was 0.48 × 106 t CO2 a-1 , and the soil PhytOC storage was 383 × 106 t CO2 . About 45% of soil PhytOC was stored in the deep soil layers (50-100 cm), highlighting the importance of deep soil layers for C stock assessments. Importantly, the Tibetan Plateau had the greatest contribution (more than 70%) to the PhytOC storage in China's grasslands. The results of multiple regression analysis indicated that altitude and soil texture significantly influenced the spatial distribution of soil PhytOC, explaining 78.1% of the total variation. Soil phytolith turnover time in China's grasslands was mainly controlled by climatic conditions, with the turnover time on the Tibetan Plateau being significantly longer than that on the Inner Mongolian Plateau. Our results offer more accurate estimates of the potential for phytolith C sequestration from ecological restoration projects in degraded grassland ecosystems. These estimates are essential to parameterizing and validating global C models.

Storage, patterns and influencing factors for soil organic carbon in coastal wetlands of China.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) in coastal wetlands, also known as "blue C," is an essential component of the global C cycles. To gain a detailed insight into blue C storage and controlling factors, we studied 142 sites across ca. 5000 km of coastal wetlands, covering temperate, subtropical, and tropical climates in China. The wetlands represented six vegetation types (Phragmites australis, mixed of P. australis and Suaeda, single Suaeda, Spartina alterniflora, mangrove [Kandelia obovata and Avicennia marina], tidal flat) and three vegetation types invaded by S. alterniflora (P. australis, K. obovata, A. marina). Our results revealed large spatial heterogeneity in SOC density of the top 1-m ranging 40-200 Mg C ha-1 , with higher values in mid-latitude regions (25-30° N) compared with those in both low- (20°N) and high-latitude (38-40°N) regions. Vegetation type influenced SOC density, with P. australis and S. alterniflora having the largest SOC density, followed by mangrove, mixed P. australis and Suaeda, single Suaeda and tidal flat. SOC density increased by 6.25 Mg ha-1 following S. alterniflora invasion into P. australis community but decreased by 28.56 and 8.17 Mg ha-1 following invasion into K. obovata and A. marina communities. Based on field measurements and published literature, we calculated a total inventory of 57 × 106 Mg C in the top 1-m soil across China's coastal wetlands. Edaphic variables controlled SOC content, with soil chemical properties explaining the largest variance in SOC content. Climate did not control SOC content but had a strong interactive effect with edaphic variables. Plant biomass and quality traits were a minor contributor in regulating SOC content, highlighting the importance of quantity and quality of OC inputs and the balance between production and degradation within the coastal wetlands. These findings provide new insights into blue C stabilization mechanisms and sequestration capacity in coastal wetlands.

Spartina alterniflora invasion controls organic carbon stocks in coastal marsh and mangrove soils across tropics and subtropics.

Coastal wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems and store large amounts of organic carbon (C)-the so termed "blue carbon." However, wetlands in the tropics and subtropics have been invaded by smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) affecting storage of blue C. To understand how S. alterniflora affects soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, sources, stability, and their spatial distribution, we sampled soils along a 2500 km coastal transect encompassing tropical to subtropical climate zones. This included 216 samplings within three coastal wetland types: a marsh (Phragmites australis) and two mangroves (Kandelia candel and Avicennia marina). Using δ13 C, C:nitrogen (N) ratios, and lignin biomarker composition, we traced changes in the sources, stability, and storage of SOC in response to S. alterniflora invasion. The contribution of S. alterniflora-derived C up to 40 cm accounts for 5.6%, 23%, and 12% in the P. australis, K. candel, and A. marina communities, respectively, with a corresponding change in SOC storage of +3.5, -14, and -3.9 t C ha-1 . SOC storage did not follow the trend in aboveground biomass from the native to invasive species, or with vegetation types and invasion duration (7-15 years). SOC storage decreased with increasing mean annual precipitation (1000-1900 mm) and temperature (15.3-23.4℃). Edaphic variables in P. australis marshes remained stable after S. alterniflora invasion, and hence, their effects on SOC content were absent. In mangrove wetlands, however, electrical conductivity, total N and phosphorus, pH, and active silicon were the main factors controlling SOC stocks. Mangrove wetlands were most strongly impacted by S. alterniflora invasion and efforts are needed to focus on restoring native vegetation. By understanding the mechanisms and consequences of invasion by S. alterniflora, changes in blue C sequestration can be predicted to optimize storage can be developed.

A concise review of biochar application to agricultural soils to improve soil conditions and fight pollution.

Application of biochar to soil can play a significant role in the alteration of nutrients dynamics, soil contaminants as well as microbial functions. Therefore, strategic biochar application to soil may provide agronomic, environmental and economic benefits. Key environmental outcomes may include reduced availability of toxic metals and organic pollutants, reduced soil N losses and longer-term storage of carbon in soil. The use of biochar can certainly address key soil agronomic constraints to crop production including Al toxicity, low soil pH and may improve nutrient use efficiency. Biochar application has also demerits to soil properties and attention should be paid when using a specific biochar for a specific soil property improvement. This review provides a concise assessment and addresses impacts of biochar on soil properties.

The role of edaphic variables and management practices in regulating soil microbial resilience to drought - A meta-analysis.

Environmental disturbances such as drought can impact soil health and the resistance (ability to withstand environmental stress) and resilience (ability to recover functional and structural integrity after stress) of soil microbial functional activities. A paucity of information exists on the impact of drought on soil microbiome and how soil biological systems respond to and demonstrate resilience to drought stress. To address this, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis (using only laboratory studies) to assess the response of soil microbial biomass and respiration to drought stress across agriculture, forest, and grassland ecosystems. The meta-analysis revealed an overall negative response of microbial biomass in resistance (-31.6 %) and resilience (-0.3 %) to drought, suggesting a decrease in soil microbial biomass content. Soil microbial respiration also showed a negative response in resistance to drought stress indicating a decrease in soil microbial respiration in agriculture (-17.5 %), forest (-64.0 %), and grassland (-65.5 %) ecosystems. However, it showed a positive response in resilience to drought, suggesting an effective recovery in microbial respiration post-drought. Soil organic carbon (SOC), clay content, and pH were the main regulating factors of the responses of soil microbial biomass and respiration to drought. In agriculture ecosystem, soil pH was primarily correlated with soil microbial respiration resistance and resilience to drought, potentially influenced by frequent land preparation and fertilizer applications, while in forest ecosystem SOC, clay content, and pH significantly impacted microbial biomass and respiration resistance and resilience. In grassland ecosystem, SOC was strongly associated with biomass resilience to drought. The impact of drought stress on soil microbiome showed different patterns in natural and agriculture ecosystems, and the magnitude of microbial functional responses regulated by soil intrinsic properties. This study highlighted the importance of understanding the role of soil properties in shaping microbial responses to drought stress for better ecosystem management.

Silicon fractionations in coastal wetland sediments: Implications for biogeochemical silicon cycling.

Coastal wetland sediment is important reservoir for silicon (Si), and plays an essential role in controlling its biogeochemical cycling. However, little is known about Si fractionations and the associated factors driving their transformations in coastal wetland sediments. In this study, we applied an optimized sequential Si extraction method to separate six sub-fractions of non-crystalline Si (Sinoncry) in sediments from two coastal wetlands, including Si in dissolved silicate (Sidis), Si in the adsorbed silicate (Siad), Si bound to organic matter (Siorg), Si occluded in pedogenic oxides and hydroxides (Siocc), Si in biogenic amorphous silica (Siba), and Si in pedogenic amorphous silica (Sipa). The results showed that the highest proportion of Si in the Sinoncry fraction was Siba (up to 6.6 % of total Si (Sitot)), followed by the Sipa (up to 1.8 % of Sitot). The smallest proportion of Si was found in the Sidis and Siad fractions with the sum of both being <0.1 % of the Sitot. We found a lower Siocc content (188 ± 96.1 mg kg-1) when compared to terrestrial soils. The Sidis was at the center of the inter-transformation among Si fractions, regulating the biogeochemical Si cycling of coastal wetland sediments. Redundancy analysis (RDA) combined with Pearson's correlations further showed that the basic biogenic elements (total organic carbon and total nitrogen), pH, and sediment salinity collectively controlled the Si fractionations in coastal wetland sediments. Our research optimizes sediment Si fractionation procedure and provides insights into the role of sedimentary Si fractions in controlling Si dynamics and knowledge for unraveling the biogeochemical Si cycling in coastal ecosystems.

Distinct biophysical and chemical mechanisms governing sucrose mineralization and soil organic carbon priming in biochar amended soils: evidence from 10 years of field studies.

While many studies have examined the role of biochar in carbon (C) accrual in short-term scale, few have explored the decadal scale influences of biochar on non-biochar C, e.g., native soil organic C (SOC) and added substrate. To address this knowledge gap, soils were collected from decade-old biochar field trials located in the United Kingdom (Cambisol) and China (Fluvisol), with each site having had three application rates (25-30, 50-60 and 75-100 Mg ha-1) of biochar plus an unamended Control, applied once in 2009. We assessed physicochemical and microbial properties associated with sucrose (representing the rhizodeposits) mineralization and the priming effect (PE) on native SOC. Here, we showed both soils amended with biochar at the middle application rate (50 Mg ha-1 biochar in Cambisol and 60 Mg ha-1 biochar in Fluvisol) resulted in greater substrate mineralization. The enhanced accessibility and availability of sucrose to microorganisms, particularly fast-growing bacterial genera like Arenimonas, Spingomonas, and Paenibacillus (r-strategists belonging to the Proteobacteria and Firmicutes phyla, respectively), can be attributed to the improved physicochemical properties of the soil, including pH, porosity, and pore connectivity, as revealed by synchrotron-based micro-CT. Random forest analysis also confirmed the contribution of the microbial diversity and physical properties such as porosity on sucrose mineralization. Biochar at the middle application rate, however, resulted in the lowest PE (0.3 and 0.4 mg of CO2-C g soil-1 in Cambisol and Fluvisol, respectively) after 53 days of incubation. This result might be associated with the fact that the biochar promoted large aggregates formation, which enclosed native SOC in soil macro-aggregates (2-0.25 mm). Our study revealed a diverging pattern between substrate mineralization and SOC priming linked to the biochar application rate. This suggests distinct mechanisms, biophysical and physicochemical, driving the mineralization of non-biochar carbon in a field where biochar was applied a decade before. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42773-024-00327-0.

Fate and recovery of nitrogen applied as slow release brown coal-urea in field microcosms: 15N tracer study.

The over-use of synthetic nitrogen (N) fertilisers for crop production can cause environmental pollution through leaching and gaseous losses, resulting in low N use efficiency (NUE). Previous work has shown that brown coal (BC) combined with urea can slow down the fertiliser-N release to better synchronise soil N supply with crop N demand. The study aimed to evaluate the impact of granulated BC-urea (BCU) applied to sweet corn on NUE, fate and recovery of fertiliser-N using an 15N tracer technique. In this in-field microcosm study, 10 atom percent enriched 15N-labelled urea (46% N) and BCU (20% N) were applied as N fertilisers at rates of 90 or 180 kg N ha-1. On average, BCU fertiliser reduced the urea-derived 15N losses as nitrous oxide (N2O) by 64%, ammonia (NH3) by 73% and downward movement of total N by 59% compared to urea. Reduced losses of applied BCU fertiliser-15N were associated with significantly increased microbial immobilisation, soil retention and availability of fertiliser-15N to plants for longer periods of time, compared with urea. As a result, BCU enhanced cob yield by an average of 23%, 15N uptake by 21% and fertiliser NUE by 21% over urea. The plant recovery of fertiliser-15N was significantly higher from BCU (59%) than the recovery from urea (38%). Moreover, mining of native soil-N was lower when the N-fertiliser source was BCU cf. urea, suggesting that BCU could be used as a more N-efficient alternative to urea in cropping systems.

Soil acidification and the liming potential of biochar.

Soil acidification in managed ecosystems such as agricultural lands principally results from the increased releasing of protons (H+) from the transformation reactions of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) containing compounds. The incorporation of liming materials can neutralize the protons released, hence reducing soil acidity and its adverse impacts to the soil environment, food security, and human health. Biochar derived from organic residues is becoming a source of carbon input to soil and provides multifunctional values. Biochar can be alkaline in nature, with the level of alkalinity dependent upon the feedstock and processing conditions. This review covers the fundamental aspects of soil acidification and of the use of biochar to address constraints related to acidic soil. Biochar is increasingly considered as an effective soil amendment for reducing soil acidity owing to its liming potential, thereby enhancing soil fertility and productivity in acid soils. The ameliorant effect on acid soils is mainly because of the dissolution of carbonates, (hydro)-oxides of the ash fraction of biochar and potential use by microorganisms.

Sorption of Pb(II) onto biochar is enhanced through co-sorption of dissolved organic matter.

Biochar plays an important role in controlling migration of pollutants in soils. However, little information is available on the interactions between soil-derived dissolved organic matter (DOM), biochar and soluble metal species. The aim of this work was to present the adsorption process of soil DOM by biochar (corn straw biochar produced at 700 °C) and to determine whether co-sorption of DOM would change the affinity for Pb(II). The adsorption rates of biochar and biochar + DOM for Pb(II) were best fitted with a pseudo-second order kinetic model, and the equilibrium adsorption isotherm data agreed well with both the Langmuir and Freundlich models. Adsorption of DOM to biochar reached equilibrium after 15 h with an uptake of 52% of the supplied DOM. We used fluorescence excitation-emission matrices (EEMs) with parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis to demonstrate that protein-like, fulvic acid-like and humic acid-like substances were the primary constituents of the DOM, which were quenched over time in the presence of biochar. Synchronous fluorescence spectra indicated that the protein-like structures were the predominant fluorescence substances in DOM. Two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) showed the binding of DOM to biochar resulted in the quenching of fluorescence in the order: protein-like substances > humic-like substances (280 > 355 nm). Data supports the notion that DOM can increase the adsorption capacity of biochar for metal-ions.

Herbicide residues in Australian grain cropping soils at sowing and their relevance to crop growth.

Herbicides are used extensively in Australian grain cropping systems. Despite occasional observations of herbicide-induced phytotoxicity, there is little information on the persistence and carryover of multiple herbicide classes in cropping soils and the risk to subsequent crops. Two soil surveys were conducted, in 2015 (n = 40) and 2016 (n = 42), across different Australian grain cropping fields prior to sowing of winter crops, and soil samples analysed for herbicide residues (16 analytes in 2015 and 22 analytes in 2016). Samples in 2015 were taken at two depths (0-10 cm and 10-30 cm), whilst samples in 2016 were taken in topsoil (0-10 cm) only, but from two discrete locations in each field. Our research in both years found at least one herbicide (or herbicide metabolite) residue at all sites, with a median of 6 analytes detected in 2015 and 7 analytes detected in 2016. The most frequently detected residues were glyphosate and its primary breakdown product aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), in 87 and 100%, respectively, of topsoil (0-10 cm) samples in 2015, and 67 and 93% of samples in 2016. The median concentration of glyphosate in 2015 was 0.12 mg kg-1, while AMPA was 0.41 mg kg-1. In 2016, median concentrations of glyphosate and AMPA were 0.22 mg kg-1 and 0.31 mg kg-1. Residues of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, trifluralin and diflufenican were also detected in >40% of topsoil samples in both seasons, but with median concentrations of <0.05 mg kg-1. A literature review found limited availability of phytotoxicity thresholds for major grain crops exposed to soilborne herbicide residues. A risk assessment using available thresholds suggested that although up to 29% of fields contained trifluralin residues that could constrain cereal crop growth, and 24% of fields contained residues of phenoxy or sulfonylureas that could affect dicotyledonous crops, the majority of these fields when planted with tolerant crops would be unlikely to be affected by herbicide residues. More work is required to ascertain the spatial distribution, bioavailability and phytotoxicity of residues and residue mixtures to enable a more accurate agronomic risk assessment.

Nanoporous materials for pesticide formulation and delivery in the agricultural sector.

One of the key focuses of the agricultural industry for preventing the decline in crop yields due to pests is to develop effective, safe, green, and sustainable pesticide formulation. A key objective of industry is to deliver active ingredients (AIs) that have minimal off site migration and non-target activity. Nanoporous materials have received significant attention internationally for the efficient loading and controlled, targeted delivery of pesticides. This is largely made possible due to their textural features including high surface area, large pore-volume, and tunable pore size. Additionally, the easier manipulation of their surface chemistry and stability in different environments are added advantages. The unique features of these materials allow them to address the solubility of the active ingredients, their efficient loading onto the porous channels, and slow and controlled delivery over time. One of their major advantages is the wide range of materials that could be suitably designed via different approaches to either adsorb, encapsulate, or entrap the active ingredient. This review is a timely presentation of recent progress made in nanoporous materials and discusses critical aspects of pesticide formulation and delivery.

Combined effects of biochar and fertilizer applications on yield: A review and meta-analysis.

The use of biochar is changing, and the combined application of biochar with fertilizer is increasingly gaining acceptance. However, the yield gains results reported in the existing literature through the co-application of fertilizer with biochar are conflicting. To resolve this, we utilized a meta-analysis of 627 paired data points extracted from 57 published articles to assess the performance of the co-application of biochar and fertilizers on crop yield compared with the corresponding controls. We also studied the impact of biochar characteristics, experimental conditions, and soil properties on crop yield. Our analysis showed that individually, biochar and inorganic fertilizer increased crop yield by 25.3% ± 3.2 (Bootstrap CI 95%) and 21.9% ± 4.4, respectively. The co-application of biochar with both inorganic and organic fertilizers increased crop yield by 179.6% ± 18.7, however, this data needs to be treated with caution due to the limited dataset. The highest yield increase was observed with amendments to very acidic soils (pH ≤5), but the benefits of biochar were not affected by the rate and the time after the application. In addition, the effects of biochar are enhanced when it is produced at 401-500 °C with a C:N ratio of 31-100. Our results suggest that the co-application of biochar with either inorganic and/or organic fertilizers in acidic soils increase crop productivity compared to amendment with either fertilizer or biochar. Our meta-analysis supports the utilization of biochar to enhance the efficiency and profitability of fertilizers.

Microspectroscopic visualization of how biochar lifts the soil organic carbon ceiling.

The soil carbon (C) saturation concept suggests an upper limit to the storage of soil organic carbon (SOC). It is set by the mechanisms that protect soil organic matter from mineralization. Biochar has the capacity to protect new C, including rhizodeposits and microbial necromass. However, the decadal-scale mechanisms by which biochar influences the molecular diversity, spatial heterogeneity, and temporal changes in SOC persistence, remain unresolved. Here we show that the soil C storage ceiling of a Ferralsol under subtropical pasture was raised by a second application of Eucalyptus saligna biochar 8.2 years after the first application-the first application raised the soil C storage ceiling by 9.3 Mg new C ha-1 and the second application raised this by another 2.3 Mg new C ha-1. Linking direct visual evidence from one-, two-, and three-dimensional analyses with SOC quantification, we found high spatial heterogeneity of C functional groups that resulted in the retention of rhizodeposits and microbial necromass in microaggregates (53-250 µm) and the mineral fraction (<53 µm). Microbial C-use efficiency was concomitantly increased by lowering specific enzyme activities, contributing to the decreased mineralization of native SOC by 18%. We suggest that the SOC ceiling can be lifted using biochar in (sub)tropical grasslands globally.

Soil organic matter formation is controlled by the chemistry and bioavailability of organic carbon inputs across different land uses.

Soil organic matter (SOM) formation involves microbial transformation of plant materials of various quality with physico-chemical stabilisation via soil aggregation. Land use and vegetation type can affect the litter chemistry and bioavailability of organic carbon (OC), and consequently influence the processing and stabilisation of OC into SOM. We used 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR) and hot-water extraction to assess the changes in chemical composition and labile OC fractions during the transformation processes from leaf to litter to SOM depending on land use and vegetation type. The hot-water-extractable OC (HWEOC) decreased from leaf (43-65 g kg-1) to litter (19-23 g kg-1) to SOM (8-16 g kg-1) similar in four land use types: grassland, sugarcane, forest and banana. These trends demonstrated the uniform converging pathways of OC transformation and increasing stability by SOM formation. The preferential decomposition and decrease of labile OC fractions (∑% di-O-alkyl, O-alkyl and methoxyl) from leaf (54-69%) to SOM (41-43%) confirmed the increasing stability of the remaining compounds. Despite differences in the biochemical composition of the leaf tissues among the vegetation types, the proportions of labile OC fractions in SOM were similar across land uses. The OC content of soil was higher in forest (7.9%) and grassland (5.2%) compared to sugarcane (2.3%) and banana (3.0%). Consequently, the HWEOC per unit of soil weight was higher in forest and grassland (2.0 and 1.2 g kg-1 soil, respectively) compared to sugarcane and banana (0.3 and 0.4 g kg soil-1, respectively). The availability of labile SOM is dependent on the quantity of SOM not the chemical composition of SOM. In conclusion, labile OC fractions in SOM, as identified by 13C NMR, were similar across land use regardless of vegetation type and consequently, SOM formation leads to convergence of chemical composition despite diversity of OC sources.