Evaluation of a Three-Dimensional Primary Human Hepatocyte Spheroid Model: Adoption and Industrialization for the Enhanced Detection of Drug-Induced Liver Injury.

Drug-induced liver injury is a leading cause of compound attrition during both preclinical and clinical drug development, and early strategies are in place to tackle this recurring problem. Human-relevant in vitro models that are more predictive of hepatotoxicity hazard identification, and that could be employed earlier in the drug discovery process, would improve the quality of drug candidate selection and help reduce attrition. We present an evaluation of four human hepatocyte in vitro models of increasing culture complexity (i.e., two-dimensional (2D) HepG2 monolayers, hepatocyte sandwich cultures, three-dimensional (3D) hepatocyte spheroids, and precision-cut liver slices), using the same tool compounds, viability end points, and culture time points. Having established the improved prediction potential of the 3D hepatocyte spheroid model, we describe implementing this model into an industrial screening setting, where the challenge was matching the complexity of the culture system with the scale and throughput required. Following further qualification and miniaturization into a 384-well, high-throughput screening format, data was generated on 199 compounds. This clearly demonstrated the ability to capture a greater number of severe hepatotoxins versus the current routine 2D HepG2 monolayer assay while continuing to flag no false-positive compounds. The industrialization and miniaturization of the 3D hepatocyte spheroid complex in vitro model demonstrates a significant step toward reducing drug attrition and improving the quality and safety of drugs, while retaining the flexibility for future improvements, and has replaced the routine use of the 2D HepG2 monolayer assay at GlaxoSmithKline.

Repeated administration of the noradrenergic neurotoxin N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4) modulates neuroinflammation and amyloid plaque load in mice bearing amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 mutant transgenes.

BACKGROUND: Data indicates anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and pro-cognitive properties of noradrenaline and analyses of post-mortem brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients reveal major neuronal loss in the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC), the main source of CNS noradrenaline (NA). The LC has projections to brain regions vulnerable to amyloid deposition and lack of LC derived NA could play a role in the progression of neuroinflammation in AD. Previous studies reveal that intraperitoneal (IP) injection of the noradrenergic neurotoxin N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4) can modulate neuroinflammation in amyloid over-expressing mice and in one study, DSP-4 exacerbated existing neurodegeneration. METHODS: TASTPM mice over-express human APP and beta amyloid protein and show age related cognitive decline and neuroinflammation. In the present studies, 5 month old C57/BL6 and TASTPM mice were injected once monthly for 6 months with a low dose of DSP-4 (5 mg kg-1) or vehicle. At 8 and 11 months of age, mice were tested for cognitive ability and brains were examined for amyloid load and neuroinflammation. RESULTS: At 8 months of age there was no difference in LC tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) across all groups and cortical NA levels of TASTPM/DSP-4, WT/Vehicle and WT/DSP-4 were similar. NA levels were lowest in TASTPM/Vehicle. Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) for various inflammatory markers were significantly increased in TASTPM/Vehicle compared with WT/Vehicle and by 8 months of age DSP-4 treatment modified this by reducing the levels of some of these markers in TASTPM. TASTPM/Vehicle showed increased astrocytosis and a significantly larger area of cortical amyloid plaque compared with TASTPM/DSP-4. However, by 11 months, NA levels were lowest in TASTPM/DSP-4 and there was a significant reduction in LC TH of TASTPM/DSP-4 only. Both TASTPM groups had comparable levels of amyloid, microglial activation and astrocytosis and mRNA for inflammatory markers was similar except for interleukin-1 beta which was increased by DSP-4. TASTPM mice were cognitively impaired at 8 and 11 months but DSP-4 did not modify this. CONCLUSION: These data reveal that a low dose of DSP-4 can have varied effects on the modulation of amyloid plaque deposition and neuroinflammation in TASTPM mice dependent on the duration of dosing.

Hypercholesterolaemia and circulating levels of CXC chemokines in apoE*3 Leiden mice.

Hyperlipidaemia may accelerate the development of atherosclerosis by enhancing the expression of chemokines by cells within the arterial wall. Chemokines of the CC subfamily are clearly implicated in atherogenesis; however, recent reports suggest that CXC chemokines may play a hitherto unrecognised role in monocyte recruitment into atheromatous lesions expressing these molecules. Here, we examine whether circulating levels of CXC chemokines may reflect the pathogenic changes occurring during early atherogenesis. ApoE*3 Leiden mice developed marked hypercholesterolaemia, and early Type I 'fatty streak' lesions, following consumption of an atherogenic diet high in saturated fat and cholesterol, and containing sodium cholate, for up to 4 weeks. By contrast, their non-transgenic littermates (C57BL/6J) exhibited a much less pronounced hypercholesterolaemia and did not develop fatty streak lesions, when fed the same diet. Under these conditions, serum concentrations of CXC chemokines, KC and Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-2 (MIP-2) were significantly (P

Short term arterial remodelling in the aortae of cholesterol fed New Zealand white rabbits shown in vivo by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging - implications for human pathology.

High-resolution, non-invasive imaging methods are required to monitor progression and regression of atherosclerotic plaques. We investigated the use of MRI to measure changes in plaque volume and vessel remodelling during progression and regression of atherosclerosis in New Zealand White rabbits. Atherosclerotic lesions were induced in the abdominal aorta by balloon injury and cholesterol feeding. MR images (2D) of the abdominal aorta were acquired with cardiac and respiratory gating using a fast spin echo sequence with and without fat-suppression. In an initial study on rabbits treated for 30 weeks we imaged the aortae with a spatial resolution of 250x250 micrometers with a slice thickness of 2 mm and achieved a close correlation between MRI-derived measurements and those made on perfusion pressure-fixed histological sections (r(1) = 0.83, slope p(1) < 0.01). We subsequently imaged 18 rabbits before and periodically during 12 weeks of cholesterol feeding (progression) followed by 12 weeks on normal diet (regression). Aortic wall (atherosclerotic lesion) volume increased significantly during progression and decreased during regression. In contrast, lumen volume increased during progression and did not change during regression. In conclusion, this study confirms that non-invasive, high-resolution MRI can be used to monitor progression and regression of atherosclerosis, each within 3 months and shows, for the first time in a short-term model, that positive remodelling occurs early during progression and persists through regression of atherosclerotic lesions.

Perturbation of microRNAs in rat heart during chronic doxorubicin treatment.

Anti-cancer therapy based on anthracyclines (DNA intercalating Topoisomerase II inhibitors) is limited by adverse effects of these compounds on the cardiovascular system, ultimately causing heart failure. Despite extensive investigations into the effects of doxorubicin on the cardiovascular system, the molecular mechanisms of toxicity remain largely unknown. MicroRNAs are endogenously transcribed non-coding 22 nucleotide long RNAs that regulate gene expression by decreasing mRNA stability and translation and play key roles in cardiac physiology and pathologies. Increasing doses of doxorubicin, but not etoposide (a Topoisomerase II inhibitor devoid of cardiovascular toxicity), specifically induced the up-regulation of miR-208b, miR-216b, miR-215, miR-34c and miR-367 in rat hearts. Furthermore, the lowest dosing regime (1 mg/kg/week for 2 weeks) led to a detectable increase of miR-216b in the absence of histopathological findings or alteration of classical cardiac stress biomarkers. In silico microRNA target predictions suggested that a number of doxorubicin-responsive microRNAs may regulate mRNAs involved in cardiac tissue remodeling. In particular miR-34c was able to mediate the DOX-induced changes of Sipa1 mRNA (a mitogen-induced Rap/Ran GTPase activating protein) at the post-transcriptional level and in a seed sequence dependent manner. Our results show that integrated heart tissue microRNA and mRNA profiling can provide valuable early genomic biomarkers of drug-induced cardiac injury as well as novel mechanistic insight into the underlying molecular pathways.