Employment preferences of obstetricians and gynecologists to work in the district hospitals: evidence from a discrete choice experiment in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: A mismatch between the requirement and annual production of obstetricians and gynecologists (OBs-GYNs) was observed in Nepal. On top of that, recruitment and retention of OBs-GYNs is a pressing problem, especially in district hospitals of Nepal. In this connection, evidence on the job priorities and preferences of OBs-GYNs, which is currently lacking in Nepal, would help in policymakers in devising recruitment and retention strategies in these hospitals. This study, therefore, aims at exploring the most relevant job attributes that OBs-GYNs would prefer to work in the district hospitals of Nepal using a discrete choice experiment (DCE) technique. METHODS: Job attributes relevant to design the questionnaire were identified using keyinformant interviews and focusgroup discussions with policymakers and top managers. Then, 48 choice sets were developed using a fractional factorial design. Using these unlabeled choice sets, a DCE was conducted among 189 OBs-GYNs. The multinomial logistic regression model was used to estimate the marginal utilities and other model parameters. The willingness to pay/accept estimates was also measured for each job attribute. RESULTS: OBs-GYNs preferred the presence of a full team at the workplace (OB-GYN, pediatrician, and anesthesiologist), provision of primary and secondary education for children, and opportunity of private practice. On the other hand, a few job attributes such as a higher duration of service in district hospitalsand the provisions of a car allowance were preferred less by the respondents. Results from the marginal utility by the OBs-GYNs would be open to trade among the attributes. CONCLUSIONS: The job attributes identified as incentives in this study should be included in a package to attract OBs-GYNs to serve in district hospitals of Nepal rather than offering a standard incentive package to all health workers. Similarly, this study confirmed the importance of the combination of non-monetary and monetary interventions in attracting and retaining health workers in district hospitals of Nepal.

Effect of a participatory intervention in women's self-help groups for the prevention of chronic suppurative otitis media in their children in Jumla Nepal: a cluster-randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) causes preventable deafness and disproportionately affects children living in poverty. Our hypothesis was that health promotion in women's groups would increase their knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding ear disease and reduce the prevalence of CSOM in their children. METHODS: We did a cluster randomised trial in two village development committees (VDCs) in Jumla, Nepal. In July 2014, 30 women's groups were randomly allocated to intervention or control, stratified by VDC and distance to the road. The intervention groups participated in three sessions of health promotion using the WHO Hearing and Ear Care Training Resource Basic Level. The primary outcome was women's KAP score and the secondary outcome was prevalence of CSOM in their children at 12 month follow-up. Analyses were by intention to treat. Participants and the research team were not masked to allocation. RESULTS: In June and July 2014 we recruited 508 women and 937 of their children. 12 months later there was no difference in the women's KAP score (mean difference 0.14, 95% CI - 0.1 to 0.38, P = 0.25) or the prevalence of CSOM in their children (OR 1.10, 95%CI 0.62 to 1.84, P = 0.75) between intervention and control groups. However, overall, there was a significant improvement in the KAP score (mean difference - 0.51, 95% CI - 0.71,to - 0.31, P < 0.0001) and in the prevalence of CSOM from baseline 11.2% to follow-up 7.1% (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Health promotion in women's groups did not improve maternal KAP or reduce prevalence of CSOM. Over time there was a significant improvement in women's KAP score and reduction in the prevalence of CSOM which may be attributable to our presence in the community offering treatment to affected children, talking to their parents and providing ciprofloxacin drops to the local health posts. More research is needed in low resource settings to test our findings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry 12,614,000,231,640 ; Date of registration: 5.3.2014: Prospectively registered.

Health care workers' knowledge, attitudes and practices on tuberculosis infection control, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Infection control remains a key challenge for Tuberculosis (TB) control program with an increased risk of TB transmission among health care workers (HCWs), especially in settings with inadequate TB infection control measures. Poor knowledge among HCWs and inadequate infection control practices may lead to the increased risk of nosocomial TB transmission. METHODS: An institution-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in 28 health facilities providing TB services in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. A total of 190 HCWs were assessed for the knowledge, attitudes and practices on TB infection control using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: The level of knowledge on TB infection control among almost half (45.8%) of the HCWs was poor, and was much poorer among administration and lower level staff. The knowledge level was significantly associated with educational status, and TB training and/or orientation received. The majority (73.2%) of HCWs had positive attitude towards TB infection control. Sixty-five percent of HCWs were found to be concerned about being infected with TB. Use of respirators among the HCWs was limited and triage of TB suspects was also lacking. CONCLUSIONS: Overall knowledge and practices of HCWs on TB infection control were not satisfactory. Effective infection control measures including regular skill-based training and/or orientation for all categories of HCWs can improve infection control practices in health facilities.

Predictors of incompletion of immunization among children residing in the slums of Kathmandu valley, Nepal: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Immunization is one of the most effective health interventions averting an estimated 2-3 million deaths every year. In Nepal, as in most low-income countries, infants are immunized with standard WHO recommended vaccines. However, 16.4 % of children did not receive complete immunization by 12 months of age in Nepal in 2011. Studies from different parts of the world showed that incomplete immunization is even higher in slums. The objective of this study was to identify the predictors of incompletion of immunization among children aged 12-23 months living in the slums of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. METHODS: The unmatched case-control study was conducted in 22 randomly selected slums of Kathmandu Valley. The sampling frame was first identified by complete enumeration of entire households of the study area from which 59 incompletely immunized children as cases and 177 completely immunized children as controls were chosen randomly in 1:3 ratio. Data were collected from the primary caretakers of the children. Backward logistic regression with 95 % confidence interval and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) were applied to assess the factors independently associated with incomplete immunization. RESULT: Twenty-six percent of the children were incompletely vaccinated. The coverage of BCG vaccine was 95.0 % while it was 80.5 % for measles vaccine. The significant predictors of incomplete immunization were the home delivery of a child, the family residing on rent, a primary caretaker with poor knowledge about the schedule of vaccination and negative perception towards vaccinating a sick child, conflicting priorities, and development of abscess following immunization. CONCLUSION: Reduction of abscess formation rate can be a potential way to improve immunization rates. Community health volunteers should increase their follow-up on children born at home and those living in rent. Health institutions and volunteers should be influential in creating awareness about immunization, its schedule, and post-vaccination side effects.

Awareness and coverage of mass drug administration for elimination of lymphatic filariasis: a community based cross sectional study in Nepal.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is among the major public health problems in Nepal. The disease is a major cause of morbidities primarily, lymphedema of legs and hydrocele and it impedes socio economic development in many endemic areas of the country. This study is aimed at exploring the understanding of people about mass drug administration (MDA) of the said disease and the status of compliance of MDA in Nepal. This study is a cross sectional study carried out among 894 household samples in three of the sixty LF endemic districts. The selected districts were Dhading, Kapilvastu and Kailali. The sentinel surveillance of sites in three districts constituted the sampling frame at the first stage. The peripheral health care centers in the sentinel sites constituted the sampling frame at the second stage of sampling. The coverage of MDA was 95.5 %. However, the compliance was less. Only 71.6 % of the respondents who took the drugs from health workers swallowed the diethyl carbamazine (DEC) completely, other did not swallow. In the present study, majority of respondents reported that they had heard or seen persons with side effects of DEC in their community. A total of 20 % of respondents reported that they had side effects after having DEC and only 3.9 % of these side effects were treated. The Female Community Health volunteers (FCHVs), health workers and radio/Television (TV) were the chief sources of MDA related information. This study recommends for a concerted public health action combining effective drug delivery mechanism and sound public awareness campaigns. The community people need to be made aware beforehand about the location, time of drug distribution. Also public awareness of the DEC should be conducted so that people would trust it and comply with the drug regime. Along with the health workers and radio/TV that has been used traditionally, we recommend mobilization of FCHVs in the public awareness campaigns the MDA campaigns.

A study protocol for a cluster randomised trial for the prevention of chronic suppurative otitis media in children in Jumla, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media (CSOM) is the commonest cause of preventable deafness, affecting 164 million people worldwide, 90 % of whom live in low resource countries, such as Nepal. Simple, inexpensive treatment of acute otitis media can prevent the development of CSOM and its sequelae: deafness, abscess, encephalitis, and, rarely, death. CSOM is a disease of poverty and its social determinants: low parental education, overcrowding, poor hygiene and malnutrition. Previous studies have established economic, socio-cultural and geographic barriers to care seeking for childhood illness in the developing world and, in particular, in Nepal. The ultimate aim of this research is to improve the ear health of the children in Jumla, Nepal. The primary outcome is an increase in mother's knowledge, attitude and practice regarding ear disease in their children. The secondary outcome is a reduction in the prevalence of CSOM in their children. METHODS/DESIGN: Using 56 existing women's self-help groups, sample size, adjusting for clustering and data analysis, is set at 15 groups per arm. A baseline survey of 30 randomly selected groups will be performed, consisting of a knowledge, attitude and practice questionnaire aimed at women who participate in self-help groups, as well as examination of their children's ears. This will be followed by random allocation, stratified by geography, into 15 intervention and 15 control groups. The intervention groups will participate in three interactive educational sessions at their regular monthly meetings based on World Health Organisation Primary Ear and Hearing Resource, Basic Level. The control groups will continue their usual monthly group meetings. At 12 months, a follow-up assessment of both control and intervention groups will be performed, with a repeat women's survey and repeat ear examination of the children. Data analysis will be by intention to treat and clustering will be considered at every stage. Cluster level data will be analysed using t-test and individual level data using mixed effects linear regression and logistic regression random effects model as appropriate. DISCUSSION: Despite its remote location, Jumla has a vibrant network of health posts and community workers. This project uses existing, local resources and will be undertaken in a way that is consistent with the cultural understanding of the local community in Jumla and acceptable to local care-givers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register, ACTRN12614000231640.

Compliance of iron and folic acid supplementation and status of anaemia during pregnancy in the Eastern Terai of Nepal: findings from hospital based cross sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: Our study aimed to assess local data for compliance with IFA supplementation and prevalence of anaemia among the pregnant mothers visiting government health facilities of eastern Nepal. RESULTS: In our study samples, IFA compliance rate was 58% during pregnancy and 42% were anaemic. Anemia was 24 times more likely to occur in IFA noncompliant women during pregnancy than their counterparts (aOR = 24.2, 95% CI 10.1-58.3), and anemia was three times less likely to be found in those taking foods rich in heme-iron than their counterparts (aOR = 3.3, 95% CI 1.4-8.1).

Factors Affecting Enrolment in the Community Based Health Insurance Scheme of Chandranigahapur Hospital of Rautahat District.

BACKGROUND: Low income countries face considerable challenges in financing health care for their populations. As its consequences, poor people don't have access to desired health services, drugs and medicine.To address the financial barriers to health services, Government of Nepal introduced Community Based Health Insurance scheme at selected health facilities. However, enrolment in the schemeis very low. This study aims to identify the associated factors affecting enrolment in the insurance scheme. METHODS: A community based case-control study was conducted within the coverage area of CBHI scheme of Chandranigahapur Hospital. CBHI Scheme of Chandranigahapur Hospital was selected purposively. Altogether 416 households were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The required number of sample size from the enrolled households as cases and equal number of non-enrolled households as controls were selected randomly in 1:1 ratio. RESULTS: The odds of enrolment in the CBHI scheme among male-headed households were found lower than female-headed households (AOR 0.251, 95% CI 0.097 to 0.652). Similarly household head belonging to upper caste/ethnic groups (AOR 3.981, 95% CI 2.027 to 7.816) as well aseducated household head(AOR 6.184, 95% CI 3.137 to 12.188)were more likely to enrol in the CBHI scheme. Households having >60 years elderly were found significantly associated with enrolment in CBHI scheme(AOR 3.996, 95% CI 2.130 to 7.497). Time to reach health facility as well as affordability of premium of the insurance scheme was also found significantly associated with enrolment in the CBHI scheme. CONCLUSIONS: The enrolment in the CBHI scheme is determined by combination of householdhead, household and health service related factors.These determinants should be addressed to enhance the enrolment in the insurance scheme.

Barriers to Utilization of Antenatal Care Services in Eastern Nepal.

BACKGROUND: World Health Organization recommends at least four pregnancy check-ups for normal pregnancies. Ministry of Health and Population Nepal has introduced various strategies to promote prenatal care and institutional delivery to reduce maternal and child deaths. However, maternal health service utilization is low in some selected socio-economic and ethnic groups. Hence, this study aims to assess barriers to the recommended four antenatal care (4ANC) visits in eastern Nepal. METHODS: A cross-sectional quantitative study was conducted in Sunsari district. A total of 372 randomly selected women who delivered in the last year preceding the survey were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was carried out to identify barriers associated with 4ANC visits. RESULTS: More than two-third women (69%) attended at least 4ANC visits. The study revealed that women exposed to media had higher chance of receiving four or more ANC visits with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR = 3.5, 95% CI: 1.2-10.1) in comparison to women who did not. Women from an advantaged ethnic group had more chance of having 4ANC visits than respondents from a disadvantaged ethnic group (aOR = 2.4, 95% CI: 2.1-6.9). Similarly, women having a higher level of autonomy were nearly three times more likely (aOR = 2.9, 95% CI: 1.5-5.6) and richer women were twice (aOR = 2.3, 95% CI: 1.1-5.3) as likely to have at least 4ANC visits compared to women who had a lower level of autonomy and were economically poor. CONCLUSION: Being from disadvantaged ethnicity, lower women's autonomy, poor knowledge of maternal health service and incentive upon completion of ANC, less media exposure related to maternal health service, and lower wealth rank were significantly associated with fewer than the recommended 4ANC visits. Thus, maternal health programs need to address such socio-cultural barriers for effective health care utilization.

Health-seeking behaviors and self-care practices of people with filarial lymphoedema in Nepal: a qualitative study.

Background. Lymphatic filariasis is endemic in Nepal. This study aimed to investigate health-seeking behaviors and self-care practices of people with filarial Lymphoedema in Nepal. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted using qualitative methods in three endemic districts. Twenty-three patients with current Lymphoedema were recruited in the study. Results. Hydrocele was found to be a well-known condition and a major health problem in the studied communities. People with Lymphoedema primarily sought health care from traditional healers, whereas sometimes home-based care was their first treatment. Later Ayurvedic and allopathic hospital-based care were sought. Respondents reported various psychological problems such as difficulty in engaging in sexual intercourse, anxiety, worry and stress, depression, low self-esteem, feeling weak, fear of being abandoned, and fear of transmitting disease to the children. Standard foot care practices except washing were largely absent. Conclusions. Lymphoedema in the limbs and hydrocele were found to be major health problems. The traditional health care providers were the first contact of care for the majority of respondents. Only a few patients had been practicing standard foot care practices.

Socioeconomic and physical distance to the maternity hospital as predictors for place of delivery: an observation study from Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Although the debate on the safety and women's right of choice to a home delivery vs. hospital delivery continues in the developed countries, an undesirable outcome of home delivery, such as high maternal and perinatal mortality, is documented in developing countries. The objective was to study whether socio-economic factors, distance to maternity hospital, ethnicity, type and size of family, obstetric history and antenatal care received in present pregnancy affected the choice between home and hospital delivery in a developing country. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was done during June, 2001 to January 2002 in an administratively and geographically well-defined territory with a population of 88,547, stretching from urban to adjacent rural part of Kathmandu and Dhading Districts of Nepal with maximum of 5 hrs of distance from Maternity hospital. There were no intermediate level of private or government hospital or maternity homes in the study area. Interviews were carried out on 308 women who delivered within 45 days of the date of the interview with a pre-tested structured questionnaire. RESULTS: A distance of more than one hour to the maternity hospital (OR = 7.9), low amenity score status (OR = 4.4), low education (OR = 2.9), multi-parity (OR = 2.4), and not seeking antenatal care in the present pregnancy (OR = 4.6) were statistically significantly associated with an increased risk of home delivery. Ethnicity, obstetric history, age of mother, ritual observance of menarche, type and size of family and who is head of household were not statistically significantly associated with the place of delivery. CONCLUSIONS: The socio-economic standing of the household was a stronger predictor of place of delivery compared to ethnicity, the internal family structure such as type and size of family, head of household, or observation of ritual days by the mother of an important event like menarche. The results suggested that mothers, who were in the low-socio-economic scale, delivered at home more frequently in a developing country like Nepal.