2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid induces ROS activation in NLRP3 inflammatory body-induced autophagy disorder in microglia and the protective effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide.

The pesticide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) exerts neurotoxic effects; however, its action mechanism remains unclear. Here, we used BV2 cells as a model and divided them into six groups: control group (serum-free medium), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (1 µg/mL), 2,4-D (1.2 µmol/mL), Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP; 300 µg/mL LBP), LPS (1 µg/mL) + LBP (300 µg/mL), and 2,4-D (1.2 µmol/mL) + LBP (300 µg/mL) with dimethyl sulfoxide as the solvent. Our results showed that 2,4-D treatment decreased superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities and increased malondialdehyde content. The percentage of microglial activation (co-expression of ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 + CD68) in the LPS and 2,4-D groups and the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL) 1 beta, IL-6, and IL-18 in the cell supernatant were increased. The protein and mRNA levels of Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein, caspase-1, IL-1ß, IL-18, and p62 increased, whereas those of LC3II/I and Beclin-1 decreased in the 2,4-D group. The protein expression and mRNA levels of NLRP3, cleaved caspase-1, IL-1ß, IL-18, and p62 decreased significantly, whereas the protein expression and mRNA levels of LC3II/I and Beclin-1 increased in small interfering RNA of NLRP3-treated BV2 cells stimulated with 2,4-D and LPS. In conclusion, 2,4-D enhanced cell migration, promoted oxidative stress, induced excessive release of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, promoted microglial cell activation, released inflammatory factors, activated NLRP3 inflammasomes, and inhibited autophagy. Meanwhile, LBP reduced inflammation and the release of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and regulated autophagy, thereby playing a neuroprotective role.

Mechanism of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-induced damage to rat testis via Fas/FasL pathway and the protective effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides.

The herbicide 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is widely used to control broadleaved weeds and has been associated with male infertility. We studied the molecular mechanisms of 2,4-D induced male reproductive system damage and the protective effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) using Sprague Dawley rats and TM4 cells. Treatment with 2,4-D caused architectural and functional changes in the testis, including collapsed and atrophied seminiferous tubules with reduced number of spermatozoa, scarce sperm in the epididymal duct, low levels of serum testosterone, decreased superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity, high malondialdehyde content, and increased apoptosis in the testis and epididymis. The expression of Fas, FasL, FADD, Pro-caspase-8, Cleaved-Caspase-8, Pro-Caspase-3, and Cleaved-Caspase-3 were significantly increased in the testicular tissue of 2,4-D-treated rats. The proliferative activity of TM4 cells decreased with an increase in dose and time of 2,4-D exposure, along with enhanced Fas/Fas ligand expression and a decreased concentration of inhibin B in TM4 cell culture medium. Depletion of Fas by specific shRNA transfection reversed the effects of 2,4-D in TM4 cells, further confirming the involvement of death receptor pathway in 2,4-D-mediated apoptosis of sertoli cells. Treatment with LBP also reversed the effects of 2,4-D in testicular cells, resulting in improved cell architecture along with enhanced proliferative capacity. Moreover, in response to LBP treatment of Sertoli cells, the content of inhibin B increased, the level of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde decreased, the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase increased, and the rate of apoptosis as well as the expression of Fas/Fas ligand signaling pathway proteins decreased.

Targeting the microRNAs in exosome: A potential therapeutic strategy for alleviation of diabetes-related cardiovascular complication.

Diabetes-related cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a global health issue that causes thousands of people's death around the world annually. Diabetes-related CVD is still prevailing despite the progression being made in its diagnosis and treatment. Therefore it is urgent to find therapeutic strategies.to prevent it. MicroRNA (miRNA) is a single-stranded non-coding RNA involved in the process of post-transcriptional control of gene expression in eukaryotes. A large number of literatures reveal that miRNAs are implicated in diabetes-related CVD. The increase of miRNAs in exosomes may promote the occurrence and development of diabetes-related cardiovascular complication. However, some other studies identify that miRNAs in exosomes are supposed to be involved in cardiac regeneration and confer cardiac protection effect. Therefore, targeting the miRNA in exosome is regarded as a potent therapeutic measure to alleviate diabetes-related CVD. In this article, we review current knowledge about the role of exosomal miRNAs in diabetes-related cardiovascular complication, such as coronary heart disease, Peripheral artery disease, stroke, diabetic cardiomyopathy, diabetic nephropathy and diabetic retinopathy. Exosomal miRNAs are considered to be central regulators of diabetes-Related CVD and provide a therapeutic tool for diagnosis and treatment of diabetes-related cardiovascular complication.

Effects of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid on the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy-related proteins as well as the protective effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide in neonatal rats.

The pesticide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has neurotoxic effects, but its mechanism is not clear. In this study, a 2,4-D (75 mg/kg. b.w) exposure model was established in SD rats with colostrum. Lipopolysaccharide (1 mg/kg b.w) was used as the positive control, and Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP, 50 mg/kg b.w) was used as an intervention factor to explore the neurotoxic effect of 2,4-D and the neuroprotective effect of LBP. Our research results show that 2,4-D causes a decrease in the number of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal cells and pyknosis in nuclei with a triangular or irregular shape and that rats show signs of anxiety or depression. In rat serum, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase activity decreased, while malondialdehyde content increased. Protein and mRNA levels of TNFα, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-18, NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, IL-1ß, IL-18, and p62 increased, while those of LC3-II/LC3-I and Beclin-1 decreased in hippocampal tissues. In conclusion, 2,4-D increased the oxidative stress level, induced neuroinflammatory response, and decreased the autophagy level in experimental rats. LBP may have upregulated the autophagy level in the body by inhibiting the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, thus playing a neuroprotective role.