Institutional preparedness to prevent and manage anaesthesia-related 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' events in Australian and New Zealand teaching hospitals.

It is unclear how the recent local and international focus on systems issues and human factors in 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' events has impacted institutional preparedness in Australia and New Zealand. This study attempts to capture a snapshot of current practices in Australian and New Zealand teaching hospitals with regard to preparedness to prevent and manage 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' events. All Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists' teaching hospitals were invited to complete an online survey consisting of 33 questions on terminology, equipment, cognitive aids, training and quality assurance. Follow-up was by both email and telephone. Responses were received from 129 (91%) of the 142 sites. The survey revealed both countries have largely moved to point-of-care 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' equipment. There were regional differences reported, with Australia favouring equipment, cognitive aids and teaching that supports a combined cannula and scalpel approach to 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate', whilst New Zealand favours those promoting a scalpel-only approach. A lack of consistency with the terminology used around 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' both within and between the two countries was also identified. This survey has revealed a generally reassuringly high degree of institutional preparedness to prevent and manage 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' events across both countries but with strong regional differences in approaches. Little is known of the institutional practices outside these countries, making international comparison difficult.

A cadaver study comparing three fibreoptic-assisted techniques for converting a supraglottic airway to a cuffed tracheal tube.

After rescuing an airway with a supraglottic airway device, a method to convert it to a cuffed tracheal tube is often needed. The best method to do this has never been directly studied. We compared three techniques for conversion of a standard LMA® Unique airway to a cuffed endotracheal tube using a fibrescope. The primary endpoint was time to intubation, with secondary endpoints of success rate, perceived difficulty and preferred technique. We also investigated the relationship between level of training and prior training and experience with the techniques on the primary outcome. The mean (95% CI) time to intubation using a direct tracheal tube technique of 37 (31-42) s was significantly shorter than either the Aintree intubation catheter technique at 70 (60-80) s, or a guidewire technique at 126 (110-141) s (p < 0.001). Most (13/24) participants rated the tracheal tube as their preferred technique, while 11/24 preferred the Aintree technique. In terms of perceived difficulty, 23/24, 21/24 and 9/24 participants rated the tracheal tube technique, Aintree technique and guidewire technique, respectively, as either very easy or easy. There was no relationship between prior training, prior experience or level of training on time to completion of any of the techniques. We conclude the tracheal tube and Aintree techniques both provide a rapid and easy method for conversion of a supraglottic airway device to a cuffed tracheal tube. The guidewire technique cannot be recommended.

Principles of aseptic technique in urinary catheterisation.

Most nurses are aware of the importance of aseptic technique but some may be unsure about applying the technique during urinary catheterisation. This article explains the principles of aseptic technique and their application to the procedure of urinary catheterisation. The article was originally published in Nursing Standard in 2006, volume 21, number 8, pages 49-56.

Chronic variable stress and intravenous methamphetamine self-administration - Role of individual differences in behavioral and physiological reactivity to novelty.

Stress is a contributing factor to the development and maintenance of addiction in humans. However, few studies have shown that stress potentiates the rewarding and/or reinforcing effects of methamphetamine in rodent models of addiction. The present study assessed the effects of exposure to 14 days of chronic variable stress (CVS), or no stress as a control (CON), on the rewarding and reinforcing effects of methamphetamine in adult rats using the conditioned place preference (Experiment 1) and intravenous self-administration (Experiment 2) paradigms. In Experiment 2, we also assessed individual differences in open field locomotor activity, anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze (EPM), and physiological responses to a novel environment as possible predictors of methamphetamine intake patterns. Exposure to CVS for 14 days did not affect overall measures of methamphetamine conditioned reward or reinforcement. However, analyses of individual differences and direct vs. indirect effects revealed that rats exhibiting high physiological reactivity and locomotor activity in the EPM and open field tests self-administered more methamphetamine and reached higher breakpoints for drug reinforcement than rats exhibiting low reactivity. In addition, CVS exposure significantly increased the proportion of rats that exhibited high reactivity, and high reactivity was significantly correlated with increased levels of methamphetamine intake. These findings suggest that individual differences in physiological and locomotor reactivity to novel environments, as well as their interactions with stress history, predict patterns of drug intake in rodent models of methamphetamine addiction. Such predictors may eventually inform future strategies for implementing individualized treatment strategies for amphetamine use disorders.

Provision and decontamination of uniforms in the NHS.

AIM: To ascertain the provision and decontamination of uniforms within a cross-section of NHS trusts in the UK and to compare policies regarding their use. METHOD: A questionnaire was circulated to 170 NHS trust infection control teams in the UK. Eighty-six (51 per cent) responses were received, which represented 101 NHS trusts. RESULTS: Less than half of the trusts (47 per cent) provide adequate numbers of uniforms to allow a clean uniform per shift. Only 26 per cent had adequate on-site staff changing facilities and 65 per cent did not launder uniforms. The majority of nursing staff (91 per cent) were compelled, by a combination of these factors, to launder their uniforms at home. Few were provided with any guidance on how to do this safely. CONCLUSION: There is an urgent need for minimum standards to be set for the provision of uniforms, laundering and changing facilities, to minimise the potential for spread of healthcare-associated infections.

The training environment of junior anaesthetic registrars learning epidural labour analgesia in Australian teaching hospitals.

Junior anaesthetic registrars perform epidural labour analgesia in many Australian hospitals, however data evaluating training and outcomes are scarce. We aimed to describe and evaluate training practices and environments provided for registrars who learn epidural labour analgesia in their first year of training. Twenty-nine registrars audited their epidurals, participated in semi-structured interviews and completed surveys for six months. The median (inter-quartile range) number of epidurals performed by each registrar was 17 (15-25). Fifty percent performed less than 20. Among 216 audited cases, complications were reported in 19% (dural puncture in 1.4%) and technical difficulties in 16%. Direct supervision was provided for a median (range) of 2.5 (6) epidurals per registrar and for a significantly higher proportion of epidurals performed in tertiary hospitals compared with district metropolitan and rural hospitals (35%, 6% and 22% respectively; P = 0.001). Registrars felt senior staff had supportive attitudes, however the onus for initiating supervision appeared to be with the registrars and responses to survey items addressing role clarity and access to supervision showed wide variation. Only 33% of registrars agreed that they received adequate training before their first epidural and 67% reported workplace stress. None received formal assessments designed to ensure adequate supervision and competency. These results suggest that current training practices for these trainees are inadequate and could be improved by audit and structured workplace learning and assessment activities. We have demonstrated the potential value of measuring a range of training outcomes and environmental factors and have provided baseline data for future research.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: tachycardia.

BACKGROUND: Tachycardia during anaesthesia is a common event. In most cases the cause is easily identified and the problem promptly resolved. However, in some the cause may be rare or obscure. Under such circumstances, attempting to initiate appropriate supportive therapy and to consider a large differential diagnosis in a comprehensive manner may lead to delays which can put a patient at risk. OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of a previously described core algorithm "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK", supplemented by a specific sub-algorithm for tachycardia, in the management of tachycardia developing in association with anaesthesia. METHODS: The potential performance of this structured approach for each of the relevant incidents among the first 4000 reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) was compared with the actual management as reported by the anaesthetists involved. RESULTS: There were 145 causative events identified in 123 reports of tachycardia during anaesthesia which were extracted and studied from the first 4000 incidents reported to AIMS. Subgroups were identified based on blood pressure at the time of presentation. Of the 145 causes, tachycardia was associated with hypotension (33%), normotension (27%), hypertension (26%), and cardiac arrest (17%). For simplicity it is recommended that other cardiovascular sub-algorithms are followed when the blood pressure is also abnormal. This includes cardiac arrest and hypotension. In hypotensive states the tachycardia sub-algorithm should be followed until the cardiac rhythm is diagnosed. Sinus tachycardia and hypotension should be managed as hypotension. It was considered that, correctly applied, the core algorithm COVER would have diagnosed 35% of cases and led to resolution in 70% of these. It was estimated that completion of COVER followed by the sub-algorithm for tachycardia would have led to earlier recognition of the problem and/or better management in four cases when compared with actual management reported. CONCLUSION: Tachycardia during anaesthesia is frequently associated with a simultaneous change in other monitored vital signs. The differential diagnosis is large. Addressing it in a comprehensive fashion requires a structured approach. A specific sub-algorithm treatment for tachycardia based on the associated blood pressure and on the prevailing heart rhythm in the case of hypotension offers a systematic guide which complements the benefits obtained by employing the core algorithm COVER ABCD.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: hypotension.

BACKGROUND: Hypotension is commonly encountered in association with anaesthesia and surgery. Uncorrected and sustained it puts the brain, heart, kidneys, and the fetus in pregnancy at risk of permanent or even fatal damage. Its recognition and correction is time critical, especially in patients with pre-existing disease that compromises organ perfusion. OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of a previously described core algorithm "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK", supplemented by a specific sub-algorithm for hypotension, in the management of hypotension when it occurs in association with anaesthesia. METHODS: Reports of hypotension during anaesthesia were extracted and studied from the first 4000 incidents reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS). The potential performance of the COVER ABCD algorithm and the sub-algorithm for hypotension was compared with the actual management as reported by the anaesthetist involved. RESULTS: There were 438 reports that mentioned hypotension, cardiovascular collapse, or cardiac arrest. In 17% of reports more than one cause was attributed and 550 causative events were identified overall. The most common causes identified were drugs (26%), regional anaesthesia (14%), and hypovolaemia (9%). Concomitant changes were reported in heart rate or rhythm in 39% and oxygen saturation or ventilation in 21% of reports. Cardiac arrest was documented in 25% of reports. As hypotension was frequently associated with abnormalities of other vital signs, it could not always be adequately addressed by a single algorithm. The sub-algorithm for hypotension is adequate when hypotension occurs in association with sinus tachycardia. However, when it occurs in association with bradycardia, non-sinus tachycardia, desaturation or signs of anaphylaxis or other problems, the sub-algorithm for hypotension recommends cross referencing to other relevant sub-algorithms. It was considered that, correctly applied, the core algorithm COVER ABCD would have diagnosed 18% of cases and led to resolution in two thirds of these. It was further estimated that completion of this followed by the specific sub-algorithm for hypotension would have led to earlier recognition of the problem and/or better management in 6% of cases compared with actual management reported. CONCLUSION: Pattern recognition in most cases enables anaesthetists to determine the cause and manage hypotension. However, an algorithm based approach is likely to improve the management of a small proportion of atypical but potentially life threatening cases. While an algorithm based approach will facilitate crisis management, the frequency of co-existing abnormalities in other vital signs means that all cases of hypotension cannot be dealt with using a single algorithm. Diagnosis, in particular, may potentially be assisted by cross referencing to the specific sub-algorithms for these.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: myocardial ischaemia and infarction.

BACKGROUND: Myocardial ischaemia and infarction are significant perioperative complications which are associated with poor patient outcome. Anaesthetic practice should therefore focus, particularly in the at risk patient, on their prevention, their accurate detection, on the identification of precipitating factors, and on rapid effective management. OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of a previously described core algorithm "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK" supplemented by a specific sub-algorithm for myocardial ischaemia and infarction in the management of myocardial ischaemia and/or infarction occurring in association with anaesthesia. METHODS: The potential performance of this structured approach for each of the relevant incidents among the first 4000 reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) was compared with the actual management as reported by the anaesthetists involved. RESULTS: Of the 125 incidents retrieved from the 4000 reports, 40 (1%) were considered to demonstrate myocardial infarction or ischaemia. The use of the structured approach described in this paper would have led to appropriate management in 90% of cases, with the remaining 10% requiring other sub-algorithms. It was considered that the application of this structured approach would have led to earlier recognition and/or better management of the problem in 45% of cases. CONCLUSION: Close and continuous monitoring of patients at risk of myocardial ischaemia during anaesthesia is necessary, using optimal ECG lead configurations, but sensitivity of this monitoring is not 100%. Coronary vasodilatation with glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) should not be withheld when indicated and the early use of beta blocking drugs should be considered even with normal blood pressures and heart rates.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac arrest attributable to anaesthesia occurs at the rate of between 0.5 and 1 case per 10 000 cases, tends to have a different profile to that of cardiac arrest occurring elsewhere, and has an in-hospital mortality of 20%. However, as individual practitioners encounter cardiac arrest rarely, the rapidity with which the diagnosis is made and the consistency of appropriate management varies considerably. OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of a previously described core algorithm "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK", supplemented by a sub-algorithm for cardiac arrest, in the management of cardiac arrest occurring in association with anaesthesia. METHODS: The potential performance of this structured approach for each the relevant incidents among the first 4000 reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) was compared with the actual management as reported by the anaesthetists involved. RESULTS: There were 129 reports of cardiac arrest associated with anaesthesia among the first 4000 AIMS incident reports. Identified aetiological factors were grouped into five categories: (1) anaesthetic technique (11 cases with this category alone; 32 with this and one or more of the other categories, representing 25% of all 129 cardiac arrests); (2) drug related (16; 32, 25%); (3) associated with surgical procedure (9; 29, 22%); (4) associated with pre-existing medical or surgical disease (30; 82, 64%); (5) unknown (8; 14, 11%). The "real life" presentation and management of cardiac arrest in association with anaesthesia differs substantially from that detailed in general published guidelines. Cardiac rhythms at the time were sinus bradycardia (23%); asystole (22%); tachycardia/ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation (14%); and normal (7%), with a further third unknown. Details of treatment were recorded in 110 reports; modalities employed included cardiac compression (72%); adrenaline (61%); 100% oxygen (58%); atropine (38%); intravenous fluids (25%), and electrical defibrillation (17%). There were no deaths or permanent morbidity in the 11 cases due solely to anaesthetic technique. 24 of the 25 deaths occurred in patients with significant pre-existing medical or surgical disease. CONCLUSION: Because there are often multiple contributing factors to a cardiac arrest under anaesthesia, a complete systematic assessment of the patient, equipment, and drugs should be completed. The "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK" algorithm was judged to be a satisfactory process in this context and should be carried out even if the cause of the cardiac arrest is already thought to have been found. The diagnosis and management of cardiac arrest in association with anaesthesia differs considerably from that encountered elsewhere. The outcome is generally good, with most patients leaving hospital alive and apparently well.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: bradycardia.

BACKGROUND: Bradycardia in association with anaesthesia may have many potential causes and associated conditions, some rare and/or obscure. A prompt appropriate response is important as some homeostatic mechanisms may be impaired under anaesthesia. OBJECTIVES: To examine the role of a previously described core algorithm "COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK", supplemented by a specific sub-algorithm for bradycardia, in the management of bradycardia occurring in association with anaesthesia. METHODS: The potential performance of this structured approach for each of the relevant incidents among the first 4000 reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) was compared with the actual management as reported by the anaesthetists involved. RESULTS: From the first 4000 incidents reported to AIMS, 265 reports which described bradycardia during anaesthesia were extracted and studied. Bradycardia was associated with hypotension in 51% of cases, cardiac arrest in 25% of cases and hypertension in one case. In 22% of reports apparent desaturation or an abnormality of ventilation was described. Bradycardia was caused by drug events (28%), airway related events (16%), autonomic reflexes (14%), and regional anaesthesia (9%). Airway and drug events caused 75% of cases involving children. It was considered that, correctly applied, the core algorithm COVER would have diagnosed 53 cases (20%) and led to corrective management in 45 (85%) of these; this included an important subset of airway and ventilation problems. Completion of COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK followed by the specific sub-algorithm for bradycardia would have resulted in diagnosis and appropriate management in all but two cases. It would have led to earlier recognition of the problem and/or better management in 11 cases (4%) when compared with the actual management described in the reports. CONCLUSION: Steps should be taken to manage bradycardia whilst associated conditions are managed concurrently. Analysis of cardiac rhythm should not be pursued to the exclusion of supportive therapy. The use of a structured approach in the management of bradycardia associated with anaesthesia is likely to improve management in the small percentage of cases in which the diagnosis of the cause may be missed or delayed.

Crisis management during anaesthesia: the development of an anaesthetic crisis management manual.

BACKGROUND: All anaesthetists have to handle life threatening crises with little or no warning. However, some cognitive strategies and work practices that are appropriate for speed and efficiency under normal circumstances may become maladaptive in a crisis. It was judged in a previous study that the use of a structured "core" algorithm (based on the mnemonic COVER ABCD-A SWIFT CHECK) would diagnose and correct the problem in 60% of cases and provide a functional diagnosis in virtually all of the remaining 40%. It was recommended that specific sub-algorithms be developed for managing the problems underlying the remaining 40% of crises and assembled in an easy-to-use manual. Sub-algorithms were therefore developed for these problems so that they could be checked for applicability and validity against the first 4000 anaesthesia incidents reported to the Australian Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS). METHODS: The need for 24 specific sub-algorithms was identified. Teams of practising anaesthetists were assembled and sets of incidents relevant to each sub-algorithm were identified from the first 4000 reported to AIMS. Based largely on successful strategies identified in these reports, a set of 24 specific sub-algorithms was developed for trial against the 4000 AIMS reports and assembled into an easy-to-use manual. A process was developed for applying each component of the core algorithm COVER at one of four levels (scan-check-alert/ready-emergency) according to the degree of perceived urgency, and incorporated into the manual. The manual was disseminated at a World Congress and feedback was obtained. RESULTS: Each of the 24 specific crisis management sub-algorithms was tested against the relevant incidents among the first 4000 reported to AIMS and compared with the actual management by the anaesthetist at the time. It was judged that, if the core algorithm had been correctly applied, the appropriate sub-algorithm would have been resolved better and/or faster in one in eight of all incidents, and would have been unlikely to have caused harm to any patient. The descriptions of the validation of each of the 24 sub-algorithms constitute the remaining 24 papers in this set. Feedback from five meetings each attended by 60-100 anaesthetists was then collated and is included. CONCLUSION: The 24 sub-algorithms developed form the basis for developing a rational evidence-based approach to crisis management during anaesthesia. The COVER component has been found to be satisfactory in real life resuscitation situations and the sub-algorithms have been used successfully for several years. It would now be desirable for carefully designed simulator based studies, using naive trainees at the start of their training, to systematically examine the merits and demerits of various aspects of the sub-algorithms. It would seem prudent that these sub-algorithms be regarded, for the moment, as decision aids to support and back up clinicians' natural responses to a crisis when all is not progressing as expected.

Psychometric characteristics of simulation-based assessment in anaesthesia and accuracy of self-assessed scores.

The purpose of this study was to define the psychometric properties of a simulation-based assessment of anaesthetists. Twenty-one anaesthetic trainees took part in three highly standardised simulations of anaesthetic emergencies. Scenarios were videotaped and rated independently by four judges. Trainees also assessed their own performance in the simulations. Results were analysed using generalisability theory to determine the influence of subject, case and judge on the variance in judges' scores and to determine the number of cases and judges required to produce a reliable result. Self-assessed scores were compared to the mean score of the judges. The results suggest that 12-15 cases are required to rank trainees reliably on their ability to manage simulated crises. Greater reliability is gained by increasing the number of cases than by increasing the number of judges. There was modest but significant correlation between self-assessed scores and external assessors' scores (rho = 0.321; p = 0.01). At the lower levels of performance, trainees consistently overrated their performance compared to those performing at higher levels (p = 0.0001).

A comparison of the endobronchial segment of modern left-sided double-lumen tubes in anesthesia for bilateral sequential lung transplantation.

OBJECTIVE: To compare a range of currently available left-sided double-lumen endotracheal tubes (DLTs) in order to demonstrate differences among them with respect to the length of the endobronchial segment. It is proposed that a tube with a short endobronchial segment is better suited to anesthesia under the conditions imposed by double sequential lung transplantation. SETTING: A university hospital with a large heart and lung transplant unit. PARTICIPANTS: The DLTs included in the study were Sher-I-Bronch (Sheridan of Kendall Australia, North Ryde, Sydney, Australia); BronchoCath and BronchoCath II (Mallinckrodt Medical, St Louis, MO); Rüsch single use (Rüsch, Wailbilngen, Germany); Portex single use (Portex, Keen, NH); and Phoenix single-use Robertshaw (Promedica, Preston, Lancashire, UK). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The endobronchial segment was measured as the distance from the point of inflation of the bronchial cuff to the tip of the tube. This distance was measured for each manufactured brand in a range of tubes and the mean obtained. The DLTs were compared to assess variability within the brand, and the influence of size on the endobronchial segment. All brands were then compared. Variability within brands is consistent with manufacturer's specified range of +/- 1 to 3 mm. The endobronchial segment increases with size for Rusch and Phoenix DLTs as a design feature. The average lengths of the endobronchial segments are Rusch 23 +/- 2 mm (sizes 35/37) and 25 +/- 2 mm (sizes 39/41); Mallinckrodt 30 +/- 3 mm (BronchoCath) and 31 +/- 3 mm (BronchoCath II); Portex 35 +/- 2 mm; Sheridan 35 +/- 2 mm; Phoenix 47 mm (small), 52 mm (medium), and 56 mm (large). CONCLUSIONS: There exists marked variability in the length of the endobronchial segment of left-sided double-lumen tubes currently available. These differences may be significant in anesthesia for bilateral sequential lung transplantation.

Anaesthetic simulators: training for the broader health-care profession.

BACKGROUND: The use of high-fidelity patient simulators for training health-care professionals has increased rapidly in recent years. Approximately 150 simulation training centres operate internationally. Australasia has acquired four centres since 1997. A large component of simulator-based training is experiential. METHODS: Participants manage clinical scenarios on lifelike computer-controlled mannikins within realistic clinical environments. Afterwards they actively reflect upon the experience, an exercise that is facilitated by observation of a video replay of the event. RESULTS: This approach to training promotes a consideration of broader issues which can influence clinical practice and patient outcomes. This has particular relevance to emergencies. Here, events that are by nature infrequent and unscheduled can be addressed in a controlled fashion, in an environment that is supportive and separated from actual patients. CONCLUSIONS: A broad range of skills can be addressed with this resource. Of key importance are situational management and team effectiveness skills. Deficiencies with respect to these 'non-clinical' skills are being increasingly identified for their contribution to preventable adverse events within the health-care environment. Multidisciplinary operation-room team training has the potential to address these issues as they relate to the perioperative environment.