Antibacterial Activity of Aluminum in Clay from the Colombian Amazon.

The problems of antibiotic overuse compel us to seek alternative antibacterial agents. Some clays have been shown to kill antibiotic-resistant human pathogens and may provide an alternative to known antibiotics. Here we show that Al toxicity plays a central role in the antibacterial action of a kaolin-rich clay from the Colombian Amazon (AMZ). Antibacterial susceptibility testing shows minimum inhibitory concentrations of 80 mg/mL against a model Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922). The clay buffered the media pH to ∼4.6 and Eh values to +360 mV. Chemical analysis of AMZ and bacteria showed that Al, P, and transition metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn) were exchanged during incubation at 37 °C. Only Al derived from the clay exceeded the minimum inhibitory concentrations for E. coli under acidic conditions. Ion imaging showed elevated Al levels in the bacterial membrane, and high intracellular Fe levels, relative to those of untreated controls. Phosphorus depletion in E. coli after reaction with AMZ, together with evidence of membrane permeabilization, suggests that Al reacts with membrane phospholipids, enhancing intracellular transport of metals. These results highlight the importance of dissolved Al for amplifying the toxicity of transition metals to human pathogens.

Sphalerite is a geochemical catalyst for carbon-hydrogen bond activation.

Reactions among minerals and organic compounds in hydrothermal systems are critical components of the Earth's deep carbon cycle, provide energy for the deep biosphere, and may have implications for the origins of life. However, there is limited information as to how specific minerals influence the reactivity of organic compounds. Here we demonstrate mineral catalysis of the most fundamental component of an organic reaction: the breaking and making of a covalent bond. In the absence of mineral, hydrothermal reaction of cis- and trans-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane is extremely slow and generates many products. In the presence of sphalerite (ZnS), however, the reaction rate increases dramatically and one major product is formed: the corresponding stereoisomer. Isotope studies show that the sphalerite acts as a highly specific heterogeneous catalyst for activation of a single carbon-hydrogen bond in the dimethylcyclohexanes.

Processing of meteoritic organic materials as a possible analog of early molecular evolution in planetary environments.

The composition of the Sutter's Mill meteorite insoluble organic material was studied both in toto by solid-state NMR spectroscopy of the powders and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses of compounds released upon their hydrothermal treatment. Results were compared with those obtained for other meteorites of diverse classifications (Murray, GRA 95229, Murchison, Orgueil, and Tagish Lake) and found to be so far unique in regard to the molecular species released. These include, in addition to O-containing aromatic compounds, complex polyether- and ester-containing alkyl molecules of prebiotic appeal and never detected in meteorites before. The Sutter's Mill fragments we analyzed had likely been altered by heat, and the hydrothermal conditions of the experiments realistically mimic early Earth settings, such as near volcanic activity or impact craters. On this basis, the data suggest a far larger availability of meteoritic organic materials for planetary environments than previously assumed and that molecular evolution on the early Earth could have benefited from accretion of carbonaceous meteorites both directly with soluble compounds and, for a more protracted time, through alteration, processing, and release from their insoluble organic materials.

Unraveling the antibacterial mode of action of a clay from the Colombian Amazon.

Natural antibacterial clays can inhibit growth of human pathogens; therefore, understanding the antibacterial mode of action may lead to new applications for health. The antibacterial modes of action have shown differences based on mineralogical constraints. Here we investigate a natural clay from the Colombian Amazon (AMZ) known to the Uitoto natives as a healing clay. The physical and chemical properties of the AMZ clay were compared to standard reference materials: smectite (SWy-1) and kaolinite (API #5) that represent the major minerals in AMZ. We tested model Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC #25922) and Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis ATCC #6633) bacteria to assess the clay's antibacterial effectiveness against different bacterial types. The chemical and physical changes in the microbes were examined using bioimaging and mass spectrometry of clay digests and aqueous leachates. Results indicate that a single dose of AMZ clay (250 mg/mL) induced a 4-6 order of magnitude reduction in cell viability, unlike the reference clays that did not impact bacterial survival. AMZ clay possesses a relatively high specific surface area (51.23 m(2)/g) and much higher total surface area (278.82 m(2)/g) than the reference clays. In aqueous suspensions (50 mg clay/mL water), soluble metals are released and the minerals buffer fluid pH between 4.1 and 4.5. We propose that the clay facilitates chemical interactions detrimental to bacteria by absorbing nutrients (e.g., Mg, P) and potentially supplying metals (e.g., Al) toxic to bacteria. This study demonstrates that native traditional knowledge can direct scientific studies.

Hydrothermal photochemistry as a mechanistic tool in organic geochemistry: the chemistry of dibenzyl ketone.

Hydrothermal organic transformations under geochemically relevant conditions can result in complex product mixtures that form via multiple reaction pathways. The hydrothermal decomposition reactions of the model ketone dibenzyl ketone form a mixture of reduction, dehydration, fragmentation, and coupling products that suggest simultaneous and competitive radical and ionic reaction pathways. Here we show how Norrish Type I photocleavage of dibenzyl ketone can be used to independently generate the benzyl radicals previously proposed as the primary intermediates for the pure hydrothermal reaction. Under hydrothermal conditions, the benzyl radicals undergo hydrogen atom abstraction from dibenzyl ketone and para-coupling reactions that are not observed under ambient conditions. The photochemical method allows the primary radical coupling products to be identified, and because these products are generated rapidly, the method also allows the kinetics of the subsequent dehydration and Paal-Knorr cyclization reactions to be measured. In this way, the radical and ionic thermal and hydrothermal reaction pathways can be studied separately.

Abundant ammonia in primitive asteroids and the case for a possible exobiology.

Carbonaceous chondrites are asteroidal meteorites that contain abundant organic materials. Given that meteorites and comets have reached the Earth since it formed, it has been proposed that the exogenous influx from these bodies provided the organic inventories necessary for the emergence of life. The carbonaceous meteorites of the Renazzo-type family (CR) have recently revealed a composition that is particularly enriched in small soluble organic molecules, such as the amino acids glycine and alanine, which could support this possibility. We have now analyzed the insoluble and the largest organic component of the CR2 Grave Nunataks (GRA) 95229 meteorite and found it to be of more primitive composition than in other meteorites and to release abundant free ammonia upon hydrothermal treatment. The findings appear to trace CR2 meteorites' origin to cosmochemical regimes where ammonia was pervasive, and we speculate that their delivery to the early Earth could have fostered prebiotic molecular evolution.

Mineralogical variables that control the antibacterial effectiveness of a natural clay deposit.

As antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains emerge and pose increased global health risks, new antibacterial agents are needed as alternatives to conventional antimicrobials. Naturally occurring antibacterial clays have been identified which are effective in killing antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study examines a hydrothermally formed antibacterial clay deposit near Crater Lake, OR (USA). Our hypothesis is that antibacterial clays buffer pH and Eh conditions to dissolve unstable mineral phases containing transition metals (primarily Fe(2+)), while smectite interlayers serve as reservoirs for time release of bactericidal components. Model pathogens (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 14990) were incubated with clays from different alteration zones of the hydrothermal deposit. In vitro antibacterial susceptibility testing showed that reduced mineral zones were bactericidal, while more oxidized zones had variable antibacterial effect. TEM images showed no indication of cell lysis. Cytoplasmic condensation and cell wall accumulations of <100 nm particles were seen within both bacterial populations. Electron energy loss analysis indicates precipitation of intracellular Fe(3+)-oxide nanoparticles (<10 nm) in E. coli after 24 h. Clay minerals and pyrite buffer aqueous solutions to pH 2.5-3.1, Eh > 630 mV and contain elevated level (mM) of soluble Fe (Fe(2+) and Fe(3+)) and Al(3+). Our interpretation is that rapid uptake of Fe(2+) impairs bacterial metabolism by flooding the cell with excess Fe(2+) and overwhelming iron storage proteins. As the intracellular Fe(2+) oxidizes, it produces reactive oxygen species that damage biomolecules and precipitates Fe-oxides. The ability of antibacterial clays to buffer pH and Eh in chronic non-healing wounds to conditions of healthy skin appears key to their healing potential and viability as an alternative to conventional antibiotics.

What makes a natural clay antibacterial?

Natural clays have been used in ancient and modern medicine, but the mechanism(s) that make certain clays lethal against bacterial pathogens has not been identified. We have compared the depositional environments, mineralogies, and chemistries of clays that exhibit antibacterial effects on a broad spectrum of human pathogens including antibiotic resistant strains. Natural antibacterial clays contain nanoscale (<200 nm), illite-smectite and reduced iron phases. The role of clay minerals in the bactericidal process is to buffer the aqueous pH and oxidation state to conditions that promote Fe(2+) solubility. Chemical analyses of E. coli killed by aqueous leachates of an antibacterial clay show that intracellular concentrations of Fe and P are elevated relative to controls. Phosphorus uptake by the cells supports a regulatory role of polyphosphate or phospholipids in controlling Fe(2+). Fenton reaction products can degrade critical cell components, but we deduce that extracellular processes do not cause cell death. Rather, Fe(2+) overwhelms outer membrane regulatory proteins and is oxidized when it enters the cell, precipitating Fe(3+) and producing lethal hydroxyl radicals.

Evaluation of the medicinal use of clay minerals as antibacterial agents.

Natural clays have been used to heal skin infections since the earliest recorded history. Recently our attention was drawn to a clinical use of French green clay (rich in Fe-smectite) for healing Buruli ulcer, a necrotizing fasciitis ('flesh-eating' infection) caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans. These clays and others like them are interesting as they may reveal an antibacterial mechanism that could provide an inexpensive treatment for this and other skin infections, especially in global areas with limited hospitals and medical resources.Microbiological testing of two French green clays, and other clays used traditionally for healing, identified three samples that were effective at killing a broad-spectrum of human pathogens. A clear distinction must be made between 'healing clays' and those we have identified as antibacterial clays. The highly adsorptive properties of many clays may contribute to healing a variety of ailments, although they are not antibacterial. The antibacterial process displayed by the three identified clays is unknown. Therefore, we have investigated the mineralogical and chemical compositions of the antibacterial clays for comparison with non-antibacterial clays in an attempt to elucidate differences that may lead to identification of the antibacterial mechanism(s).The two French green clays used to treat Buruli ulcer, while similar in mineralogy, crystal size, and major element chemistry, have opposite effects on the bacterial populations tested. One clay deposit promoted bacterial growth whereas another killed the bacteria. The reasons for the difference in antibacterial properties thus far show that the bactericidal mechanism is not physical (e.g., an attraction between clay and bacteria), but by a chemical transfer or reaction. The chemical variables are still under investigation.Cation exchange experiments showed that the antibacterial component of the clay can be removed, implicating exchangeable cations in the antibacterial process. Furthermore, aqueous leachates of the antibacterial clays effectively kill the bacteria. Progressively heating the clay leads first to dehydration (200 degrees C), then dehydroxylation (550 degrees C or more), and finally to destruction of the clay mineral structure by (~900 degrees C). By identifying the elements lost after each heating step, and testing the bactericidal effect of the heated product, we eliminated many toxins from consideration (e.g., microbes, organic compounds, volatile elements) and identified several redox-sensitive refractory metals that are common among antibacterial clays. We conclude that the pH and oxidation state buffered by the clay mineral surfaces is key to controlling the solution chemistry and redox related reactions occurring at the bacterial cell wall.

Broad-spectrum in vitro antibacterial activities of clay minerals against antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens.

OBJECTIVES: The capacity to properly address the worldwide incidence of infectious diseases lies in the ability to detect, prevent and effectively treat these infections. Therefore, identifying and analysing inhibitory agents are worthwhile endeavours in an era when few new classes of effective antimicrobials have been developed. The use of geological nanomaterials to heal skin infections has been evident since the earliest recorded history, and specific clay minerals may prove valuable in the treatment of bacterial diseases, including infections for which there are no effective antibiotics, such as Buruli ulcer and multidrug-resistant infections. METHODS: We have subjected two iron-rich clay minerals, which have previously been used to treat Buruli ulcer patients, to broth culture testing of antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria to assess the feasibility of using clay minerals as therapeutic agents. RESULTS: One specific mineral, CsAg02, demonstrated bactericidal activity against pathogenic Escherichia coli, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) E. coli, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Mycobacterium marinum, and a combined bacteriostatic/bactericidal effect against Staphylococcus aureus, penicillin-resistant S. aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and Mycobacterium smegmatis, whereas another mineral with similar structure and bulk crystal chemistry, CsAr02, had no effect on or enhanced bacterial growth. The <0.2 microm fraction of CsAg02 and CsAg02 heated to 200 or 550 degrees C retained bactericidal activity, whereas cation-exchanged CsAg02 and CsAg02 heated to 900 degrees C no longer killed E. coli. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that specific mineral products have intrinsic, heat-stable antibacterial properties, which could provide an inexpensive treatment against numerous human bacterial infections.

Antibacterial activity of reduced iron clay against pathogenic bacteria associated with wound infections.

Clay is a substance historically utilized by indigenous cultures for the treatment of superficial wound infections. This study evaluated the effects of a recently identified clay - OMT Blue Clay - against staphylococci, streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae and non-fermenting Gram-negative bacilli. The clay and its aqueous leachate were evaluated against the bacteria in biofilm and planktonic states. Time-kill studies were used to assess planktonic activity. Biofilms on medical-grade Teflon discs were treated with a hydrated clay suspension or leachate. For the planktonic studies, clay and leachate exhibited bactericidal activity against all strains tested, with the exception of leachate against Staphylococcus aureus IDRL-6169 and USA300. All strains treated with clay suspension and leachate resulted in statistically significant biofilm population reductions compared with controls, except S. aureus IDRL-6169 and USA300 (P ≤ 0.05). OMT Blue Clay and its aqueous leachate exhibited bactericidal activity against a range of human pathogens in the planktonic and biofilm states.

Unearthing the Antibacterial Mechanism of Medicinal Clay: A Geochemical Approach to Combating Antibiotic Resistance.

Natural antibacterial clays, when hydrated and applied topically, kill human pathogens including antibiotic resistant strains proliferating worldwide. Only certain clays are bactericidal; those containing soluble reduced metals and expandable clay minerals that absorb cations, providing a capacity for extended metal release and production of toxic hydroxyl radicals. Here we show the critical antibacterial components are soluble Fe(2+) and Al(3+) that synergistically attack multiple cellular systems in pathogens normally growth-limited by Fe supply. This geochemical process is more effective than metal solutions alone and provides an alternative antibacterial strategy to traditional antibiotics. Advanced bioimaging methods and genetic show that Al(3+) misfolds cell membrane proteins, while Fe(2+) evokes membrane oxidation and enters the cytoplasm inflicting hydroxyl radical attack on intracellular proteins and DNA. The lethal reaction precipitates Fe(3+)-oxides as biomolecular damage proceeds. Discovery of this bactericidal mechanism demonstrated by natural clays should guide designs of new mineral-based antibacterial agents.

Bentonite, Bandaids, and Borborygmi.

The practice of eating clay for gastrointestinal ailments and applying clay topically as bandaids for skin infections is as old as mankind. Bentonites in particular have been used in traditional medicines, where their function has been established empirically. With modern techniques for nanoscale investigations, we are now exploring the interactions of clay minerals and human pathogens to learn the lessons that Mother Nature has used for healing. The vast surface area and chemical variability of hydrothermally altered bentonites may provide a natural pharmacy of antibacterial agents.

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRENCH GREEN CLAYS USED FOR HEALING.

The worldwide emergence of infectious diseases, together with the increasing incidence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, elevate the need to properly detect, prevent, and effectively treat these infections. The overuse and misuse of common antibiotics in recent decades stimulates the need to identify new inhibitory agents. Therefore, natural products like clays, that display antibacterial properties, are of particular interest.The absorptive properties of clay minerals are well documented for healing skin and gastrointestinal ailments. However, the antibacterial properties of clays have received less scientific attention. French green clays have recently been shown to heal Buruli ulcer, a necrotic or 'flesh-eating' infection caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans. Assessing the antibacterial properties of these clays could provide an inexpensive treatment for Buruli ulcer and other skin infections.Antimicrobial testing of the two clays on a broad-spectrum of bacterial pathogens showed that one clay promotes bacterial growth (possibly provoking a response from the natural immune system), while another kills bacteria or significantly inhibits bacterial growth. This paper compares the mineralogy and chemical composition of the two French green clays used in the treatment of Buruli ulcer.Mineralogically, the two clays are dominated by 1Md illite and Fe-smectite. Comparing the chemistry of the clay minerals and exchangeable ions, we conclude that the chemistry of the clay, and the surface properties that affect pH and oxidation state, control the chemistry of the water used to moisten the clay poultices and contribute the critical antibacterial agent(s) that ultimately debilitate the bacteria.