Glial immune-related pathways mediate effects of closed head traumatic brain injury on behavior and lethality in Drosophila.

In traumatic brain injury (TBI), the initial injury phase is followed by a secondary phase that contributes to neurodegeneration, yet the mechanisms leading to neuropathology in vivo remain to be elucidated. To address this question, we developed a Drosophila head-specific model for TBI termed Drosophila Closed Head Injury (dCHI), where well-controlled, nonpenetrating strikes are delivered to the head of unanesthetized flies. This assay recapitulates many TBI phenotypes, including increased mortality, impaired motor control, fragmented sleep, and increased neuronal cell death. TBI results in significant changes in the transcriptome, including up-regulation of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). To test the in vivo functional role of these changes, we examined TBI-dependent behavior and lethality in mutants of the master immune regulator NF-κB, important for AMP induction, and found that while sleep and motor function effects were reduced, lethality effects were enhanced. Similarly, loss of most AMP classes also renders flies susceptible to lethal TBI effects. These studies validate a new Drosophila TBI model and identify immune pathways as in vivo mediators of TBI effects.

Ataxin2 functions via CrebA to mediate Huntingtin toxicity in circadian clock neurons.

Disrupted circadian rhythms is a prominent and early feature of neurodegenerative diseases including Huntington's disease (HD). In HD patients and animal models, striatal and hypothalamic neurons expressing molecular circadian clocks are targets of mutant Huntingtin (mHtt) pathogenicity. Yet how mHtt disrupts circadian rhythms remains unclear. In a genetic screen for modifiers of mHtt effects on circadian behavior in Drosophila, we discovered a role for the neurodegenerative disease gene Ataxin2 (Atx2). Genetic manipulations of Atx2 modify the impact of mHtt on circadian behavior as well as mHtt aggregation and demonstrate a role for Atx2 in promoting mHtt aggregation as well as mHtt-mediated neuronal dysfunction. RNAi knockdown of the Fragile X mental retardation gene, dfmr1, an Atx2 partner, also partially suppresses mHtt effects and Atx2 effects depend on dfmr1. Atx2 knockdown reduces the cAMP response binding protein A (CrebA) transcript at dawn. CrebA transcript level shows a prominent diurnal regulation in clock neurons. Loss of CrebA also partially suppresses mHtt effects on behavior and cell loss and restoration of CrebA can suppress Atx2 effects. Our results indicate a prominent role of Atx2 in mediating mHtt pathology, specifically via its regulation of CrebA, defining a novel molecular pathway in HD pathogenesis.

Filleting and Immunostaining of Larvae to Visualize Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neuron Dendrite Arbors.

Nervous system formation involves the specification of neuron identity, followed by precise circuit construction; this includes controlling the pattern and connectivity of the dendrite arbor. Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful experimental model for studying dendrite arbor differentiation mechanisms. da neuron dendrite arbors elaborate in two dimensions in the body wall, making it easy to visualize them with high resolution. Immunostaining is a conventional method to examine arbor pattern and the subcellular distribution of proteins. In addition, images acquired from immunostaining protocols can amplify weaker signals from fluorescent transgenic proteins and be used to quantify protein expression levels. This protocol describes a broadly applicable dissection, fixation, and immunostaining approach in Drosophila larvae.

Culture of Larval and Pupal Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful model for studying neuronal differentiation and sensory functions. A general experimental strength of this model is the examination of the neurons in situ in the body wall. However, for some analyses, restricted access to the neurons in situ causes difficulty; da neuron cultures circumvent this. Here, we outline isolation and culture techniques for larval and pupal da neurons. Investigators can use these cultures to perform high-resolution imaging, quantitative immunohistochemistry, and electrophysiology.

Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) Clone Generation in Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) is used in Drosophila research to create labeled homozygous mutant clones of cells in an otherwise heterozygous fly. It allows the study of the effect of embryonically lethal genes and the determination of cell autonomy for a mutant phenotype. When used in dendritic arborization (da) neurons with a fluorescent protein targeted to the plasma membrane, MARCM allows the identification of homozygous mutant neurons and clear imaging of the dendrite arbor in both live and fixed preparations. Previous protocols that outlined experimental procedures to create MARCM clones in da neurons used a heat shock promoter to drive Flippase (FLP) expression; such an approach requires laborious embryo collection and heat shock steps, and it creates clones in other tissues besides the da neurons. The updated protocol described here outlines the use of FLP expression driven by a sensory organ precursor promoter (SOP-FLP); it requires no embryo collection or manipulation steps and creates clones exclusively in the peripheral sensory neuron lineage.

Use of DeTerm for Automated Drosophila Dendrite Arbor Terminal Counts.

Neurons have a complex dendritic architecture that governs information flow through a circuit. Manual quantification of dendritic arbor morphometrics is time-consuming and can be inaccurate. Automated quantification systems such as DeTerm help to overcome these limitations. DeTerm is a software tool that automatically recognizes dendrite branch terminals with high precision. It uses an artificial neural network to label the terminals, count them, and provide each terminal's positional data. DeTerm can recognize the dendritic terminals of Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons, and it can also examine other types of neurons, including mouse Purkinje cells. It is freely available and works on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Here, we describe the use of DeTerm.

Mounting of Embryos, Larvae, and Pupae for Live Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neuron Imaging.

Live imaging approaches are essential for monitoring how neurons go through a coordinated series of differentiation steps in their native mechanical and chemical environment. These imaging approaches also allow the study of dynamic subcellular processes such as cytoskeleton remodeling and the movement of organelles. Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful experimental system for studying the dendrite arbor in live animals. da neurons are located on the internal surface of the body wall and, therefore, are easily accessible for imaging. Moreover, many genetic tools target da neurons to disrupt genes or proteins of interest and allow the investigator to visualize fluorescent markers and endogenously tagged proteins in the neurons. This protocol introduces methods for preparing and mounting intact Drosophila embryos, larvae, and pupae, allowing live imaging of dynamic cellular processes in da neurons.

Study of Dendrite Differentiation Using Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Neurons receive, process, and integrate inputs. These operations are organized by dendrite arbor morphology, and the dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral sensory nervous system are an excellent experimental model for examining the differentiation processes that build and shape the dendrite arbor. Studies in da neurons are enabled by a wealth of fly genetic tools that allow targeted neuron manipulation and labeling of the neuron's cytoskeletal or organellar components. Moreover, as da neuron dendrite arbors cover the body wall, they are highly accessible for live imaging analysis of arbor patterning. Here, we outline the structure and function of different da neuron types and give examples of how they are used to elucidate central mechanisms of dendritic arbor formation.

Circadian Clocks Function in Concert with Heat Shock Organizing Protein to Modulate Mutant Huntingtin Aggregation and Toxicity.

Neurodegenerative diseases commonly involve the disruption of circadian rhythms. Studies indicate that mutant Huntingtin (mHtt), the cause of Huntington's disease (HD), disrupts circadian rhythms often before motor symptoms are evident. Yet little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which mHtt impairs circadian rhythmicity and whether circadian clocks can modulate HD pathogenesis. To address this question, we used a Drosophila HD model. We found that both environmental and genetic perturbations of the circadian clock alter mHtt-mediated neurodegeneration. To identify potential genetic pathways that mediate these effects, we applied a behavioral platform to screen for clock-regulated HD suppressors, identifying a role for Heat Shock Protein 70/90 Organizing Protein (Hop). Hop knockdown paradoxically reduces mHtt aggregation and toxicity. These studies demonstrate a role for the circadian clock in a neurodegenerative disease model and reveal a clock-regulated molecular and cellular pathway that links clock function to neurodegenerative disease.