Identification of miRNA858 long-loop precursors in seed plants.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of nonprotein-coding short transcripts that provide a layer of post-transcriptional regulation essential to many plant biological processes. MiR858, which targets the transcripts of MYB transcription factors, can affect a range of secondary metabolic processes. Although miR858 and its 187-nt precursor have been well studied in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), a systematic investigation of miR858 precursors and their functions across plant species is lacking due to a problem in identifying the transcripts that generate this subclass. By re-evaluating the transcript of miR858 and relaxing the length cut-off for identifying hairpins, we found in kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) that miR858 has long-loop hairpins (1,100 to 2,100 nt), whose intervening sequences between miRNA generating complementary sites were longer than all previously reported miRNA hairpins. Importantly, these precursors of miR858 containing long-loop hairpins (termed MIR858L) are widespread in seed plants including Arabidopsis, varying between 350 and 5,500 nt. Moreover, we showed that MIR858L has a greater impact on proanthocyanidin and flavonol levels in both Arabidopsis and kiwifruit. We suggest that an active MIR858L-MYB regulatory module appeared in the transition of early land plants to large upright flowering plants, making a key contribution to plant secondary metabolism.

Restricted responses of AcMYB68 and AcERF74/75 enhanced waterlogging tolerance in kiwifruit.

Most of kiwifruit cultivars (e.g. Actinidia chinensis cv. Donghong, "DH") were sensitive to waterlogging, thus, waterlogging resistant rootstocks (e.g. Actinidia valvata Dunn, "Dunn") were widely used for kiwifruit industry. Those different species provided ideal materials to understand the waterlogging responses in kiwifruit. Compared to the weaken growth and root activities in "DH", "Dunn" maintained the relative high root activities under the prolonged waterlogging. Based on comparative analysis, transcript levels of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDCs) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADHs) showed significantly difference between these two species. Both PDCs and ADHs had been significantly increased by waterlogging in "DH", while they were only limitedly triggered by 2 days stress and subsided during the prolonged waterlogging in "Dunn". Thus, 19 differentially expressed transcript factors (DETFs) had been isolated using weighted gene co-expression network analysis combined with transcriptomics and transcript levels of PDCs and ADHs in waterlogged "DH". Among these DETFs, dual luciferase and electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated AcMYB68 could bind to and trigger the activity of AcPDC2 promoter. The stable over-expression of AcMYB68 significantly up-regulated the transcript levels of PDCs but inhibited the plant growth, especially the roots. Moreover, the enzyme activities of PDC in 35S::AcMYB68 were significantly enhanced during the waterlogging response than that in wild type plants. Most interestingly, comparative analysis indicated that the expression patterns of AcMYB68 and the previously characterized AcERF74/75 (the direct regulator on ADHs) either showed no responses (AcMYB68 and AcERF74) or very limited response (AcERF75) in "Dunn". Taken together, the restricted responses of AcMYB68 and AcERF74/75 in "Dunn" endow its waterlogging tolerance.

Exogenous gibberellin delays maturation in persimmon fruit through transcriptional activators and repressors.

As the harvest season of most fruit is concentrated, fruit maturation manipulation is essential for the fresh fruit industry to prolong sales time. Gibberellin (GA), an important phytohormone necessary for plant growth and development, has also shown a substantial regulatory effect on fruit maturation; however, its regulatory mechanisms remain inconclusive. In this research, preharvest GA3 treatment effectively delayed fruit maturation in several persimmon (Diospyros kaki) cultivars. Among the proteins encoded by differentially expressed genes, 2 transcriptional activators (NAC TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR DkNAC24 and ETHYLENE RESPONSIVE FACTOR DkERF38) and a repressor (MYB-LIKE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR DkMYB22) were direct regulators of GERANYLGERANYL DIPHOSPHATE SYNTHASE DkGGPS1, LYSINE HISTIDINE TRANSPORTER DkLHT1, and FRUCTOSE-BISPHOSPHATE ALDOLASE DkFBA1, respectively, resulting in the inhibition of carotenoid synthesis, outward transport of an ethylene precursor, and consumption of fructose and glucose. Thus, the present study not only provides a practical method to prolong the persimmon fruit maturation period in various cultivars but also provides insights into the regulatory mechanisms of GA on multiple aspects of fruit quality formation at the transcriptional regulation level.

AcHZP45 is a repressor of chlorophyll biosynthesis and activator of chlorophyll degradation in kiwifruit.

The degradation of chlorophyll during fruit development is essential to reveal a more 'ripe' color that signals readiness to wild dispersers of seeds and the human consumer. Here, comparative biochemical analysis of developing fruit of Actinidia deliciosa cv. Xuxiang ('XX', green-fleshed) and Actinidia chinensis cv. Jinshi No.1 ('JS', yellow-fleshed) indicated that variation in chlorophyll content is the major contributor to differences in flesh color. Four differentially expressed candidate genes were identified: the down-regulated genes AcCRD1 and AcPOR1 involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, and the up-regulated genes AcSGR1 and AcSGR2 driving chlorophyll degradation. Prochlorophyllide and chlorophyllide, the metabolites produced by AcCRD1 and AcPOR1, progressively reduced in 'JS', but not in 'XX', indicating that chlorophyll biosynthesis was less active in yellow-fleshed fruit. AcSGR1 and AcSGR2 were verified to be involved in chlorophyll degradation, using both transient expression in tobacco and stable overexpression in kiwifruit. Furthermore, a homeobox-leucine zipper (HD-Zip II), AcHZP45, showed significantly increased expression during 'JS' fruit ripening, which led to both repressed expression of AcCRD1 and AcPOR1 and activated expression of AcSGR1 and AcSGR2. Collectively, the present study indicated that different dynamics of chlorophyll biosynthesis and degradation coordinate the changes in chlorophyll content in kiwifruit flesh, which are orchestrated by the key transcription factor AcHZP45.

A dramatic decline in fruit citrate induced by mutagenesis of a NAC transcription factor, AcNAC1.

Citrate is a common primary metabolite which often characterizes fruit flavour. The key regulators of citrate accumulation in fruit and vegetables are poorly understood. We systematically analysed the dynamic profiles of organic acid components during the development of kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.). Citrate continuously accumulated so that it became the predominate contributor to total acidity at harvest. Based on a co-expression network analysis using different kiwifruit cultivars, an Al-ACTIVATED MALATE TRANSPORTER gene (AcALMT1) was identified as a candidate responsible for citrate accumulation. Electrophysiological assays using expression of this gene in Xenopus oocytes revealed that AcALMT1 functions as a citrate transporter. Additionally, transient overexpression of AcALMT1 in kiwifruit significantly increased citrate content, while tissues showing higher AcALMT1 expression accumulated more citrate. The expression of AcALMT1 was highly correlated with 17 transcription factor candidates. However, dual-luciferase and EMSA assays indicated that only the NAC transcription factor, AcNAC1, activated AcALMT1 expression via direct binding to its promoter. Targeted CRISPR-Cas9-induced mutagenesis of AcNAC1 in kiwifruit resulted in dramatic declines in citrate levels while malate and quinate levels were not substantially affected. Our findings show that transcriptional regulation of a major citrate transporter, by a NAC transcription factor, is responsible for citrate accumulation in kiwifruit, which has broad implications for other fruits and vegetables.

The red flesh of kiwifruit is differentially controlled by specific activation-repression systems.

Anthocyanins are visual cues for pollination and seed dispersal. Fruit containing anthocyanins also appeals to consumers due to its appearance and health benefits. In kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) studies have identified at least two MYB activators of anthocyanin, but their functions in fruit and the mechanisms by which they act are not fully understood. Here, transcriptome and small RNA high-throughput sequencing were used to comprehensively identify contributors to anthocyanin accumulation in kiwifruit. Stable overexpression in vines showed that both 35S::MYB10 and MYB110 can upregulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in Actinidia chinensis fruit, and that MYB10 overexpression resulted in anthocyanin accumulation which was limited to the inner pericarp, suggesting that repressive mechanisms underlie anthocyanin biosynthesis in this species. Furthermore, motifs in the C-terminal region of MYB10/110 were shown to be responsible for the strength of activation of the anthocyanic response. Transient assays showed that both MYB10 and MYB110 were not directly cleaved by miRNAs, but that miR828 and its phased small RNA AcTAS4-D4(-) efficiently targeted MYB110. Other miRNAs were identified, which were differentially expressed between the inner and outer pericarp, and cleavage of SPL13, ARF16, SCL6 and F-box1, all of which are repressors of MYB10, was observed. We conclude that it is the differential expression and subsequent repression of MYB activators that is responsible for variation in anthocyanin accumulation in kiwifruit species.

Citrus heat shock transcription factor CitHsfA7-mediated citric acid degradation in response to heat stress.

Heat stress is a major abiotic stress for plants, which can generate a range of biochemical and genetic responses. In 'Ponkan' mandarin fruit, hot air treatment (HAT) accelerates the degradation of citric acid. However, the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of citrate degradation in response to HAT remain to be elucidated. Here, 17 heat shock transcription factor sequences were isolated, and dual-luciferase assays were employed to investigate whether the encoded proteins that could trans-activate the promoters of key genes in the GABA shunt, involved in citrate metabolism. We identified four heat shock transcription factors (CitHsfA7, CitHsfA3, CitHsfA4b and CitHsfA8) that showed trans-activation effects on CitAco3, CitIDH3 and CitGAD4, respectively. Transient expression of the CitHsfs in citrus fruits indicated that CitHsfA7 was the only factor that resulted in a significant lowering of the citric acid content, and these results were confirmed by a virus-induced gene silencing system (VIGS). Sub-cellar localization showed that CitHsfA7 is located in the nucleus and is capable of binding directly to a putative HSE in the CitAco3 promoter and enhance its expression. We proposed that the induction of CitHsfA7 transcript level contributes to citric acid degradation in citrus fruit, via modulation of CitAco3 in response to HAT.

An ethylene-hypersensitive methionine sulfoxide reductase regulated by NAC transcription factors increases methionine pool size and ethylene production during kiwifruit ripening.

Ethylene plays an important role in regulating fruit ripening by triggering dynamic changes in expression of ripening-associated genes, but the functions of many of these genes are still unknown. Here, a methionine sulfoxide reductase gene (AdMsrB1) was identified by transcriptomics-based analysis as the gene most responsive to ethylene treatment in ripening kiwifruit. The AdMsrB1 protein exhibits a stereospecific activity toward the oxidative stress-induced R enantiomer of methionine sulfoxide (MetSO), reducing it to methionine (Met). Stable overexpression of AdMsrB1 in kiwifruit significantly increased the content of free Met and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the immediate precursor of ethylene, and increased ethylene production. Dual-luciferase assays indicated that the AdMsrB1 promoter was not directly upregulated by ethylene treatment but was modulated by two ethylene-inducible NAM/ATAF/CUC transcription factors (AdNAC2 and AdNAC72) that bind directly to the AdMsrB1 promoter. Overexpression of AdNAC72 in kiwifruit not only enhanced AdMsrB1 expression, but also increased free Met and ACC content and ethylene production rates. This finding establishes an unexpected regulatory loop that enhances ethylene production and the concentration of its biosynthetic intermediates.

Genome-wide analysis of coding and non-coding RNA reveals a conserved miR164-NAC regulatory pathway for fruit ripening.

Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) is a climacteric fruit with high sensitivity to ethylene, influenced by multiple ethylene-responsive structural genes and transcription factors. However, the roles of other post-transcriptional regulators (e.g. miRNAs) necessary for ripening remain elusive. High-throughput sequencing sRNAome, degradome and transcriptome methods were used to identify further contributors to ripening control in the kiwifruit (A. deliciosa cv 'Hayward'). Two NAM/ATAF/CUC domain transcription factors (AdNAC6 and AdNAC7), both predicted targets for miR164, showed significant upregulation by exogenous ethylene. Gene expression analysis and luciferase reporter assays indicated that Ade-miR164 and one of its precursor miRNAs (Ade-MIR164b) were repressed by ethylene treatment and negatively correlated with AdNAC6/7 expression. Subsequent analysis indicated that both AdNAC6 and AdNAC7 proteins are transcriptional activators and physically bind the promoters of AdACS1 (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase), AdACO1 (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase), AdMAN1 (endo-ß-mannanase) and AaTPS1 (terpene synthase). Moreover, subcellular analysis indicated that the location of the AdNAC6/7 proteins was influenced by Ade-miR164. Multiple omics-based approaches revealed a novel regulatory link for fruit ripening that involved ethylene-miR164-NAC. The regulatory pathway for miR164-NAC is present in various fruit (e.g. Rosaceae fruit, citrus, grape), with implications for fruit ripening regulation.

High-CO2/Hypoxia-Responsive Transcription Factors DkERF24 and DkWRKY1 Interact and Activate DkPDC2 Promoter.

Identification and functional characterization of hypoxia-responsive transcription factors is important for understanding plant responses to natural anaerobic environments and during storage and transport of fresh horticultural products. In this study, yeast one-hybrid library screening using the persimmon (Diospyros kaki) pyruvate decarboxylase (DkPDC2) promoter identified three ethylene response factor (ERF) genes (DkERF23/DkERF24/DkERF25) and four WRKY transcription factor genes (DkWRKY/DdkWRKY5/DkWRKY6/DkWRKY7) that were differentially expressed in response to high CO2 (95%, with 4% N2 and 1% oxygen) and high N2 (99% N2 and 1% oxygen). Yeast one-hybrid assays and electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that DkERF23, DkERF24, DkERF25, DkWRKY6, and DkWRKY7 could directly bind to the DkPDC2 promoter. Dual-luciferase assays confirmed that these transcription factors were capable of transactivating the DkPDC2 promoter. DkERF24 and DkWRKY1 in combination synergistically transactivated the DkPDC2 promoter, and yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays confirmed protein-protein interaction between DkERF24 and DkWRKY1. Transient overexpression of DkERF24 and DkWRKY1 separately and in combination in persimmon fruit discs was effective in maintaining insolubilization of tannins, concomitantly with the accumulation of DkPDC2 transcripts. Studies with Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) homologs AtERF1 and AtWRKY53 indicated that similar protein-protein interactions and synergistic regulatory effects also occur with the DkPDC2 promoter. We propose that an ERF and WRKY transcription factor complex contributes to responses to hypoxia in both persimmon fruit and Arabidopsis, and the possibility that this is a general plant response requires further investigation.

ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR39-MYB8 complex regulates low-temperature-induced lignification of loquat fruit.

Flesh lignification is a specific chilling response that causes deterioration in the quality of stored red-fleshed loquat fruit (Eribotrya japonica) and is one aspect of wider chilling injury. APETALA2/ETHLENE RESPONSIVE FACTOR (AP2/ERF) transcription factors are important regulators of plant low-temperature responses and lignin biosynthesis. In this study, the expression and action of 27 AP2/ERF genes from the red-fleshed loquat cultivar 'Luoyangqing' were investigated in order to identify transcription factors regulating low-temperature-induced lignification. EjERF27, EjERF30, EjERF36, and EjERF39 were significantly induced by storage at 0 °C but inhibited by a low-temperature conditioning treatment (pre-storage at 5 °C for 6 days before storage at 0 °C, which reduces low-temperature-induced lignification), and their transcript levels positively correlated with flesh lignification. A dual-luciferase assay indicated that EjERF39 could transactivate the promoter of the lignin biosynthetic gene Ej4CL1, and an electrophoretic mobility shift assay confirmed that EjERF39 recognizes the DRE element in the promoter region of Ej4CL1. Furthermore, the combination of EjERF39 and the previously characterized EjMYB8 synergistically transactivated the Ej4CL1 promoter, and both transcription factors showed expression patterns correlated with lignification in postharvest treatments and red-fleshed 'Luoyangqing' and white-fleshed 'Ninghaibai' cultivars with different lignification responses. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation and luciferase complementation imaging assays confirmed direct protein-protein interaction between EjERF39 and EjMYB8. These data indicate that EjERF39 is a novel cold-responsive transcriptional activator of Ej4CL1 that forms a synergistic activator complex with EjMYB8 and contributes to loquat fruit lignification at low temperatures.

High CO2/hypoxia-induced softening of persimmon fruit is modulated by DkERF8/16 and DkNAC9 complexes.

Most persimmon (Diospyros kaki) cultivars are astringent and require post-harvest deastringency treatments such as 95% CO2 (high-CO2 treatment) to make them acceptable to consumers. High-CO2 treatment can, however, also induce excessive softening, which can be reduced by adding 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). Previous studies have shown that genes encoding the ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTORS (ERFs) DkERF8/16/19 can trans-activate xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (DkXTH9), which encodes the cell wall-degrading enzyme associated with persimmon fruit softening. In this study, RNA-seq data between three treatments were compared, namely high-CO2, high-CO2+1-MCP, and controls. A total of 227 differentially expressed genes, including 17 transcription factors, were predicted to be related to persimmon post-deastringency softening. Dual-luciferase assays indicated that DkNAC9 activated the DkEGase1 promoter 2.64-fold. Synergistic effects on transcription of DkEGase1 that involved DkNAC9 and the previously reported DkERF8/16 were identified. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay indicated that DkNAC9 could physically bind to the DkEGase1 promoter. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation and firefly luciferase complementation imaging assays indicated protein-protein interactions between DkNAC9 and DkERF8/16. Based on these findings, we conclude that DkNAC9 is a direct transcriptional activator of DkEGase1 that can co-operate with DkERF8/16 to enhance fruit post-deastringency softening.

Transcriptome Analysis Identifies a Zinc Finger Protein Regulating Starch Degradation in Kiwifruit.

Ripening, including softening, is a critical factor in determining the postharvest shelf-life of fruit and is controlled by enzymes involved in cell wall metabolism, starch degradation, and hormone metabolism. Here, we used a transcriptomics-based approach to identify transcriptional regulatory components associated with texture, ethylene, and starch degradation in ripening kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). Twelve differentially expressed structural genes, including seven involved in cell wall metabolism, four in ethylene biosynthesis, and one in starch degradation, and 14 transcription factors (TFs) induced by exogenous ethylene treatment and inhibited by the ethylene signaling inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropene were identified as changing in transcript levels during ripening. Moreover, analysis of the regulatory effects of differentially expressed genes identified a zinc finger TF, DNA BINDING WITH ONE FINGER (AdDof3), which showed significant transactivation on the AdBAM3L (ß-amylase) promoter. AdDof3 interacted physically with the AdBAM3L promoter, and stable overexpression of AdBAM3L resulted in lower starch content in transgenic kiwifruit leaves, suggesting that AdBAM3L is a key gene for starch degradation. Moreover, transient overexpression analysis showed that AdDof3 up-regulated AdBAM3L expression in kiwifruit. Thus, transcriptomics analysis not only allowed the prediction of some ripening-regulating genes but also facilitated the characterization of a TF, AdDof3, and a key structural gene, AdBAM3L, in starch degradation.

C2H2-Type Zinc Finger Proteins (DkZF1/2) Synergistically Control Persimmon Fruit Deastringency.

Hypoxic environments are generally undesirable for most plants, but for astringent persimmon, high CO2 treatment (CO2 > 90%), also termed artificial high-CO2 atmosphere (AHCA), causes acetaldehyde accumulation and precipitation of soluble tannins and could remove astringency. The multiple transcriptional regulatory linkages involved in persimmon fruit deastringency have been advanced significantly by characterizing the ethylene response factors (ERFs), WRKY and MYB; however, the involvement of zinc finger proteins for deastringency has not been investigated. In this study, five genes encoding C2H2-type zinc finger proteins were isolated and designed as DkZF1-5. Phylogenetic and sequence analyses suggested the five DkZFs could be clustered into two different subgroups. qPCR analysis indicated that transcript abundances of DkZF1/4 were significantly upregulated during AHCA treatment (1% O2 and 95% CO2) at day 1, DkZF2/5 at both day 1 and 2, while DkZF3 at day 2. Dual-luciferase assay indicated DkZF1 and DkZF2 as the activators of deastringency-related structural genes (DkPDC2 and DkADH1) and transcription factors (DkERF9/10). Moreover, combinative effects between various transcription factors were investigated, indicating that DkZF1 and DkZF2 synergistically showed significantly stronger activations on the DkPDC2 promoter. Further, both bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) and yeast two hybrid (Y2H) assays confirmed that DkZF2 had protein-protein interactions with DkZF1. Thus, these findings illustrate the regulatory mechanisms of zinc finger proteins for persimmon fruit deastringency under AHCA.

A transcription factor network responsive to high CO2/hypoxia is involved in deastringency in persimmon fruit.

Plant responses to anaerobic environments are regulated by ethylene-response factors (ERFs) in both vegetative and productive organs, but the roles of other transcription factors (TFs) in hypoxia responses are poorly understood. In this study, eight TFs (DkbHLH1, DkMYB9/10/11, DkRH2-1, DkGT3-1, DkAN1-1, DkHSF1) were shown to be strongly up-regulated by an artificial high-CO2 atmosphere (1% O2 and 95% CO2). Dual-luciferase assays indicated that some TFs were activators of previously characterized DkERFs, including DkMYB10 for the DkERF9 promoter, DkERF18/19 and DkMYB6 for the DkERF19 promoter, and DkERF21/22 for the DkERF10 promoter. Yeast one-hybrid and cis-element mutagenesis confirmed these physical interactions with one exception. The potential roles of these TFs in persimmon fruit deastringency were analysed by investigating their transient over-expression (TOX) in persimmon fruit discs, which indicated that DkMYB6TOX, DkMYB10TOX, DkERF18TOX, and DkERF19TOX were all effective in causing insolubilization of tannins, concomitantly with the up-regulation of the corresponding genes. These results indicated that multiple TFs of different classes are responsive to high-CO2/hypoxia in fruit tissues, and that a TF-TF regulatory cascade is involved in the hypoxia responses involving the Group VII DkERF10, and DkERFs and DkMYBs.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of resilience scale specific to cancer: an item response theory analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Classic theory test has been used to develop and validate the 25-item Resilience Scale Specific to Cancer (RS-SC) in Chinese patients with cancer. This study was designed to provide additional information about the discriminative value of the individual items tested with an item response theory analysis. METHODS: A two-parameter graded response model was performed to examine whether any of the items of the RS-SC exhibited problems with the ordering and steps of thresholds, as well as the ability of items to discriminate patients with different resilience levels using item characteristic curves. RESULTS: A sample of 214 Chinese patients with cancer diagnosis was analyzed. The established three-dimension structure of the RS-SC was confirmed. Several items showed problematic thresholds or discrimination ability and require further revision. CONCLUSIONS: Some problematic items should be refined and a short-form of RS-SC maybe feasible in clinical settings in order to reduce burden on patients. However, the generalizability of these findings warrants further investigations.

Involvement of an ethylene response factor in chlorophyll degradation during citrus fruit degreening.

Chlorophyll degradation naturally occurs during plant senescence. However, in fruit such as citrus, it is a positive characteristic, as degreening is an important colour development contributing to fruit quality. In the present work, Citrus sinensis Osbeck, cv. Newhall fruit was used as a model for chlorophyll degradation. An ethylene response factor, CitERF13, was isolated and its transcriptional changes were closely correlated with fruit peel degreening during development or in response to ethylene. Dual-luciferase and yeast one-hybrid assays, as well as motif mutation, indicated that CitERF13 directly binds to the CitPPH promoter and enhances its activity. Transient and stable over-expression of CitERF13 resulted in rapid chlorophyll degradation in Nicotiana tabacum leaves and led to accumulation of pheophorbide (Pheide) a, a metabolite of pheophorbide hydrolase (PPH). Similar results were observed from transient transformation of CitERF13 in citrus fruit peel. Moreover, this function of CitERF13 was conserved within Arabidopsis and tomato, as the homologs AtERF17 and SlERF16 similarly acted as activators of PPH genes and accelerators of chlorophyll degradation.

Hypoxia-responsive ERFs involved in postdeastringency softening of persimmon fruit.

Removal of astringency by endogenously formed acetaldehyde, achieved by postharvest anaerobic treatment, is of critical importance for many types of persimmon fruit. Although an anaerobic environment accelerates de-astringency, it also has the deleterious effect of promoting excessive softening, reducing shelf life and marketability. Some hypoxia-responsive ethylene response factors (ERFs) participate in anaerobic de-astringency, but their role in accelerated softening was unclear. Undesirable rapid softening induced by high CO2 (95%) was ameliorated by adding the ethylene inhibitor 1-MCP (1 µL/L), resulting in reduced astringency while maintaining firmness, suggesting that CO2 -induced softening involves ethylene signalling. Among the hypoxia-responsive genes, expression of eight involved in fruit cell wall metabolism (Dkß-gal1/4, DkEGase1, DkPE1/2, DkPG1, DkXTH9/10) and three ethylene response factor genes (DkERF8/16/19) showed significant correlations with postdeastringency fruit softening. Dual-luciferase assay indicated that DkERF8/16/19 could trans-activate the DkXTH9 promoter and this interaction was abolished by a mutation introduced into the C-repeat/dehydration-responsive element of the DkXTH9 promoter, supporting the conclusion that these DkERFs bind directly to the DkXTH9 promoter and regulate this gene, which encodes an important cell wall metabolism enzyme. Some hypoxia-responsive ERF genes are involved in deastringency and softening, and this linkage was uncoupled by 1-MCP. Fruit of the Japanese cultivar 'Tonewase' provide a model for altered anaerobic response, as they lost astringency yet maintained firmness after CO2 treatment without 1-MCP and changes in cell wall enzymes and ERFs did not occur.

Transcriptomic and metabolic analyses provide new insights into chilling injury in peach fruit.

Low temperature conditioning (LTC) alleviates peach fruit chilling injury but the underlying molecular basis is poorly understood. Here, changes in transcriptome, ethylene production, flesh softening, internal browning and membrane lipids were compared in fruit maintained in constant 0 °C and LTC (pre-storage at 8 °C for 5 d before storage at 0 °C). Low temperature conditioning resulted in a higher rate of ethylene production and a more rapid flesh softening as a result of higher expression of ethylene biosynthetic genes and a series of cell wall hydrolases. Reduced internal browning of fruit was observed in LTC, with lower transcript levels of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase, but higher lipoxygenase. Low temperature conditioning fruit also showed enhanced fatty acid content, increased desaturation, higher levels of phospholipids and a preferential biosynthesis of glucosylceramide. Genes encoding cell wall hydrolases and lipid metabolism enzymes were coexpressed with differentially expressed ethylene response factors (ERFs) and contained ERF binding elements in their promoters. In conclusion, LTC is a special case of cold acclimation which increases ethylene production and, operating through ERFs, promotes both softening and changes in lipid composition and desaturation, which may modulate membrane stability, reducing browning and contributing to alleviation of peach fruit chilling injury.

EjNAC3 transcriptionally regulates chilling-induced lignification of loquat fruit via physical interaction with an atypical CAD-like gene.

Lignin is an important component of many plant secondary cell walls. In the fruit of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), lignification of cell walls in the fleshy tissue occurs when fruit are subjected to low-temperature storage, which is commonly used to avoid the rapid senescence that occurs at room temperature. In this study, two NAC domain genes, EjNAC3 and EjNAC4, were isolated and shown to be significantly induced at 0 °C, which was concomitant with an increase in the fruit lignification index. Lignification and expression of both EjNAC3 and EjNAC4 were inhibited by low-temperature conditioning and by heat treatment. In addition, EjNAC3 trans-activated the lignin biosynthesis-related EjCAD-like promoter, which was measured using a dual-luciferase assay. Further analysis with yeast one-hybrid and electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that EjNAC3 could physically bind to the promoter of the EjCAD-like gene. Thus, EjNAC3 is a direct regulator of loquat chilling-induced lignification, via regulations of EjCAD-like.