Do stillbirth, miscarriage, and termination of pregnancy increase risks of attempted and completed suicide within a year? A population-based nested case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the risks of attempted and completed suicide in women who experienced a stillbirth, miscarriage, or termination of pregnancy within 1 year postnatally and compare this risk with that in women who experienced a live birth. DESIGN: A nested case-control study. SETTING: Linking three nationwide population-based data sets in Taiwan: the National Health Insurance Research Database, the National Birth Registry and the National Death Registry. SAMPLE: In all, 485 and 350 cases of attempted and completed suicide, respectively, were identified during 2001-11; for each case, ten controls were randomly selected and matched to the cases according to the age and year of delivery. METHODS: Conditional logistic regression. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Attempted and completed suicidal statuses were determined. RESULTS: The rates of attempted suicide increased in the women who experienced fetal loss. The risk of completed suicide was higher in women who experienced a stillbirth [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 5.2; 95% CI 1.77-15.32], miscarriage (aOR 3.81; 95% CI 2.81-5.15), or termination of pregnancy (aOR 3.12; 95% CI 1.77-5.5) than in those who had a live birth. Furthermore, the risk of attempted suicide was significantly higher in women who experienced a miscarriage (aOR 2.1; 95% CI 1.66-2.65) or termination of pregnancy (aOR 2.5; 95% CI 1.63-3.82). In addition to marital and educational statuses, psychological illness increased the risk of suicidal behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of suicide might increase in women who experience fetal loss within 1 year postnatally. Healthcare professionals and family members should enhance their sensitivity to care for possible mental distress, particularly for women who have experienced a stillbirth. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: Suicide risk increased in women who had a stillbirth, miscarriage, or termination of pregnancy within 1 year postnatally.

Fractures and the increased risk of suicide: a population-based case-control study.

Aims: A high rate of suicide has been reported in patients who sustain fractures, but the association remains uncertain in the context of other factors. The aim of this study was to examine the association between fractures and the risk of suicide in this contextual setting. Patients and Methods: We performed a case-control study of patients aged 40 years or older who died by suicide between 2000 and 2011. We included patients' demographics, physical and mental health problems, and socioeconomic factors. We performed conditional logistic regression to evaluate the associations between fractures and the risk of suicide. Results: We included a total of 34 794 patients who died by suicide and 139 176 control patients. We found that fractures as a homogenous group (adjusted odds ratios (aOR), 1.48; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.43 to 1.53), and specifically pelvic (aOR 2.04; 95% CI 1.68 to 2.47) and spinal fractures (aOR 1.53; 95% CI 1.43 to 1.64), were associated with a higher risk of suicide. In addition, we found that patients who had a lower income, had never married, had lower levels of educational attainment, or had coexistent physical and mental conditions such as anxiety, mood disorders, and psychosis-related disorders had a higher risk of suicide. Conclusion: Fractures, specifically those of the hip and spine, were associated with an increased risk of suicide. The findings suggest that greater clinical attention should be given to this risk in patients with fractures, especially for those with additional risk factors. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:780-6.

Effect of Prolonged Diarrhea in Renal Transplant Recipients at a Single Center in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: Post-renal transplantation diarrhea is a common complication; however, it is easily ignored. This study aimed to determine the factors influencing graft function for renal transplant recipients with diarrhea. METHODS: A single-center retrospective study with the use of the Hyperion data warehouse was conducted to search and evaluate for renal transplant recipients who came for medical care for diarrhea at our transplant center from January 2009 to August 2015. The clinical features of patients with diarrhea were compared with the features of recipients without diarrhea. The causes and risk factors of post-transplantation diarrhea were also evaluated. RESULTS: For the 67 patients collected for the study, infectious diarrhea (ID) was confirmed in 27 patients (40.3%), and the most common causes were cytomegalovirus and Clostridium difficile infection. A significant difference was found between ID and noninfectious (NID) groups for serum creatinine change (0.31 ± 0.51 vs 0.1 ± 0.27 mg/dL; P = .0319), revealing that the impact of diarrhea on renal function was greater for ID patients. When diarrhea of ≥10 days was used as a cutoff for serum creatinine change, the change of serum creatinine became greater when the diarrhea period was longer (<7 d vs >14 d: 0.07 ± 0.22 vs 0.55 ± 0.6 mg/mL; P = .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Infectious diarrhea does more damage to the kidney graft than NID in transplant recipients. If the period of diarrhea is lengthened to >10 days, the renal function of the graft would be impaired and irreversible graft loss would be expected.

Validation the use of refractometer and mathematic equations to measure dietary formula contents for clinical application.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Gastric residual volumes are widely used to evaluate gastric emptying for patients receiving enteral feeding, but controversy exists about what constitutes gastric residual volume. We have developed a method by using refractometer and derived mathematical equations to calculate the formula concentration, total residual volume (TRV), and formula volume. In this study, we like to validate these mathematical equations before they can be implemented for clinical patient care. METHODS: Four dietary formulas were evaluated in two consecutive validation experiments. Firstly, dietary formula volume of 50, 100, 200, and 400 ml were diluted with 50 ml water, and then the Brix value (BV) was measured by the refractometer. Secondly, 50 ml of water, then 100 ml of dietary formula were infused into a beaker, and followed by the BV measurement. After this, 50 ml of water was infused and followed by the second BV measurement. The entire procedure of infusing of dietary formula (100 ml) and waster (50 ml) was repeated twice and followed by the BV measurement. RESULTS: The formula contents (formula concentration, TRV, and formula volume) were calculated by mathematical equations. The calculated formula concentrations, TRVs, and formula volumes measured from mathematic equations were strongly close to the true values in the first and second validation experiments (R2>0.98, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Refractometer and the derived mathematical equations may be used to accurately measure the formula concentration, TRV, and formula volume and served as a tool to monitor gastric emptying for patients receiving enteral feeding.

Pulmonary inflammation caused by chitosan microparticles.

Chitosan is a cationic biopolymer derived from chitin with potential therapeutic applications such as controlled drug delivery to mucosal-epithelial surfaces in the body. Inhaled chitosan microparticles (CM), for example, are of potential interest in pulmonary pharmacotherapy. In this context, we examine some basic reactions of lung tissue to CM. Inhaled CM (2-10 mg/kg of particles) induce dose-dependent proinflammatory effects in rat lungs; these effects are documented in increases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid protein (BALF-P) and lactate dehydrogenase activity (BALF-LDH) and increases in lung tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and leukocyte migration. Overall, the biochemical parameters (i.e., average of BALF-P, BALF-DH, and MPO) indicate that the inflammation response is 1.8-fold greater than controls without CM; the same inflammation parameters, however, are 1.9-fold lower with CM compared with the proinflammatory effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Cytological examination of BALF shows a large infiltration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils to lung tissue: more than a sixfold increase in this population of inflammatory cells, after inhalation of CM relative to air inhalation controls. Thus, the results indicate that inhaled CM can have significant proinflammatory effects on lung tissues; these effects are mild relative to LPS but need to be considered in the context of therapeutic applications via pulmonary delivery if such concentrations of CM are used.

The control of protein release from poly(DL-lactide co-glycolide) microparticles by variation of the external aqueous phase surfactant in the water-in oil-in water method.

Poly(DL-lactide co-glycolide) microparticles below 5 microm in size and containing ovalbumin (OVA), were prepared using the water-in oil-in water (w/o/w) technique with either polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as stabilisers in the external aqueous phase. PVP-stabilised microparticles exhibited higher protein loading (8.2%, w/w relative to 4.0% for PVA stabilised microparticles) and increased core loading (encapsulation) of protein (70% vs. 30% for the PVA system). The use of PVP instead of PVA to prepare microparticles also resulted in reduction in the initial burst release of OVA, together with sustained protein release over 28 days and an increase in the protein delivery capacity from 35 to 45 microg/mg particles. The changes in protein loading and delivery characteristics are considered to arise in part from an increase in the viscosity of the droplets of polymer solution, constituting the primary water-in oil emulsion, by diffusion of PVP from the external aqueous phase. Variation of the external aqueous phase surfactant provides a promising approach for improving the loading of therapeutic proteins and vaccine antigens within biodegradable microparticles and for modulating their release pattern.

Aspects of the design and delivery of microparticles for vaccine applications.

Mortality and morbidity data continue to indicate there is a compelling need for the derivation of a new generation of vaccine delivery systems that can be usefully applied via injection and also mucosally. One technology that has potential for design as an effective vaccine delivery system is the formulation of biodegradable microparticles from the polymers and poly lactide co-glycolide (PLGA) in particular. The potential advantages of the delivery of vaccines within such microparticles is discussed. The potential for eliciting and optimising immunity after the mucosal delivery of biodegradable microparticles is also discussed.

Degradation kinetics of metronidazole in solution.

The degradation kinetics of metronidazole in aqueous solutions of pH 3.1 to 9.9 under accelerated storage conditions were studied. The stability of metronidazole in solutions containing propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol 400 was also investigated. The reaction order for metronidazole in these aqueous and solvent systems followed pseudo-first-order degradation kinetics. The degradation rate of metronidazole was invariant under various total buffer concentrations at each specific pH within the investigated pH range. These results indicate that no general acid/base catalysis imposed by acetate, phosphate, and borate buffer species is responsible for the degradation of metronidazole. The catalytic rate constants for hydrogen ion, water, and hydroxyl ion for the degradation of metronidazole were 6.11 x 10(-5) M/s, 3.54 x 10(-8) L/s, and 4.10 x 10(-3) M/s, respectively. The pH-rate profile shows a pH-independent region of pH 3.9-6.6. Maximum stability of metronidazole was at pH 5.6 under zero total buffer species conditions. The ionic strength effect on metronidazole degradation in acetate and phosphate buffers followed the modified Debye-Huckel equation well. The Arrhenius plot showing the temperature dependence of metronidazole degradation indicates estimates of activation energy of 15.35 kcal/mol and a half-life of 963 h at room temperature in 0.1 M pH 3.1 acetate buffer solution (ionic strength = 0.5). Irradiation with UV light (254 nm) of the metronidazole solutions (pH 3.1 acetate buffer) accelerated degradation in comparison with light-protected samples. Incorporation of propylene glycol into the metronidazole solution at pH 3.1 increased stability; however, an adverse effect on the stability of metronidazole was seen when polyethylene glycol 400 solvent system was used.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of an ocular delivery system of 5-fluorouracil microspheres.

Solvent evaporation technique with O/O (oil/oil) emulsion was used to prepare 5-FU (5-fluorouracil) biodegradable microspheres with a polymer of poly(dl-lactide-co-glycolide) combining lecithin as an emulsifier. In vitro drug release was conducted in phosphate buffer with pH 7.4 at 37 degrees C. For in vivo studies, 10 mg of 5-FU microspheres (containing 1 mg of 5-FU) were implanted in the conjunctival area of the rabbit eye. Rabbits were sacrificed at certain time intervals within 7 days after drug application. Samples of aqueous humor and sclera were prepared and analyzed by the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. The tested 5-FU microsphere contained 10% drug with a mean particle size of 4.4 +/- 0.6 microm. The microsphere had a burst release initially (64.9 +/- 1.5%), followed by a sustained release; the cumulative release at time points of 1, 10 and 21 days were 71.9 +/- 1.9%, 80.1 +/- 2.1% and 89.8 +/- 2.3%, respectively. For in vivo studies, aqueous humor levels showed a peak at the first sampling point (2 hr), then maintained low levels of 5-FU with a range 0.2-1 microg/mL. Scleral levels were 20-80 microg/mL during a 7-day study. Our results indicate that the prepared 5-FU microsphere provided a long-term release for more than 1 week. The preparation showed no irritation and low toxicity (< 100 microg/mL). For application to the eye, it might be potentially useful as a complement drug system in glaucoma filtration surgery.

Wound modulation after trabeculectomy by different formulations of antimetabolites in rabbits.

A prospective, randomized study was performed to examine the effects of subconjunctival retention of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) microparticles or 5-FU microparticles combined with mitomycin-C (MMC) on the success of trabeculectomy procedure in 32 New Zealand white rabbits. Drug-loaded microparticles were prepared using a biodegradable polymer, 50:50 ploy (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (50:50, PLG, MW 9000), by an oil-in-oil emulsification/solvent extraction technique. Each rabbit underwent trabeculectomy on both eyes, then one of the 5-FU and/or MMC preparations was placed at the site of the filtering surgery intraoperatively in the right eye, while the left eye was used as a control. The rabbits were randomly allocated to one of four treatment groups: group 1 rabbits received 5% 5-FU microparticles 10 mg; group 2 rabbits received 10% 5-FU microparticles 10 mg; group 3 rabbits received 10% 5-FU microparticles 5 mg and MMC 0.01 mg (5-FU/MMC); and group 4 rabbits received MMC 0.02 mg. Postoperatively, intraocularpressure (IOP), bleb survival, complications and IOP dynamics were compared during a follow-up period of 42 days. The results showed that IOPs were significantly lower in the eyes that received groups 3 and 4 treatments, while the eyes that received low concentrations of 5-FU microparticles resulted in no difference in IOPs as compared with those of controls. At 42 days, blebs were present in 100% of the eyes treated with 5-FU/MMC and MMC, but 0% of the eyes treated with 5-FU microparticles. The blebs in the eyes treated with MMC 0.02 mg were thinner, and significant complications (endophthalmitis, transient corneal opacification and neovascularization) occurred. In addition, the IOP dynamics study revealed that the eyes treated with 5-FU/MMC and MMC resulted in less IOP spikings after intravenous infusion of 0.9% NaCl solution. Our study suggested that the use of 5-FU microparticles in promoting the success of trabeculectomy in rabbits is dose-dependent, and its effect is less potent than a single intraoperative application of MMC.

The stability of insulin in biodegradable microparticles based on blends of lactide polymers and polyethylene glycol.

Insulin-loaded microparticles were produced from blends of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) with poly (L-lactide) (PLA) homopolymer and poly (DL-lactide co-glycolide) copolymers (PLG) using a water-in-oil solvent extraction method. The dispersed phase was composed of PLG/PEG or PLA/PEG dissolved in dichloromethane, and the continuous phase was methanol containing 10% PVP. Characteristics, including particle size distribution, insulin loading capacity and efficiencies, in vitro release, degradation and stability, were investigated. The stability of insulin associated with microparticles prepared using PEG and 50:50 PLG and PLA was analysed by HPSEC and quantified by peak area following incubation in PBS at 37 degrees C for up to 1 month. Insulin was successfully entrapped in the PLG/PEG and PLA/PEG microparticles with trapping efficiencies up to 56 and 48%, loading levels 17.8 and 10.6% w/w, and particle sizes 8 and 3 microm, respectively. The insulin-loaded PLG/PEG and PLA/PEG microparticles were capable of controlling the release of insulin over 28 days with in vitro delivery rates of 0.94 and 0.65 microg insulin/mg particles/day in the first 4 days and a steady release with rate of 0.4 and 0.43 microg insulin/mg particles/day over the following 4 weeks, respectively. Extensive degradation of the PLG/PEG microparticles also occurred over 4 weeks, whereas the use of PLA/PEG blends resulted in a stable microparticle morphology and much reduced fragmentation and aggregation of the associated insulin.

Degradation kinetics of neostigmine in solution.

The degradation kinetics of neostigmine were studied in aqueous solutions with varied pH from 1.5 to 9.9 under accelerated storage conditions. The stability of neostigmine in solutions containing propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol 400 was also investigated. The reaction order of neostigmine in these aqueous and solvent systems followed pseudo-first-order degradation kinetics. The degradation rates of neostigmine under various buffer concentrations within the investigated pH range were obtained. They indicated that the degradation was independent of the species of buffering agent. Maximum stability of neostigmine was determined at pH 5.0 buffer species conditions. The activation energy could be estimated from the Arrhenius plot as 15.72 kcal/mole. The half-life of 883.7 days was estimated at room temperature in 0.1 M, pH 4.9 acetate buffer solution (mu = 0.5). Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation at 254 nm of the neostigmine solutions in pH 4.9 acetate buffer showed an accelerated degradation in comparison with light-protected samples. Incorporation of propylene glycol into the neostigmine solution at pH 4.9 enhanced the stability; however, an adverse effect on the stability of neostigmine was noted when a polyethylene glycol 400 solvent system was used.

Inactive Vibrio cholerae whole-cell vaccine-loaded biodegradable microparticles: in vitro release and oral vaccination.

An approach is proposed using Vibrio cholerae (VC)-loaded microparticles as oral vaccine delivery systems for improved vaccine bioavailability and increased therapeutic efficacy. The VC-loaded microparticles were prepared with 50:50 poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG), 75:25 poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(lactide acid) (PLA)/PEG blend copolymers by the solvent evaporation method. VC was successfully entrapped in three types of microparticles with loading efficiencies and loading levels as follows: 50:50 PLG systems: 97.8% and 55.4 +/- 6.9 micro g/mg; 75:25 PLG systems: 89.2% and 46.5 +/- 4.4 micro g/mg; PLA/PEG-blended systems: 82.6% and 53.7 +/- 5.8 micro g/mg. The different distributions of VC in the core region and on the surface were as follows: 50:50 PLG systems 25.7 +/- 1.9 and 6.2 +/- 0.9 micro g/mg; 75:25 PLG systems: 25.8 +/- 2.2 and 3.6 +/- 0.4 micro g/mg; PLA/PEG-blended systems: 32.4 +/- 2.1 and 5.2 +/- 1.0 micro g/mg, respectively. In vitro active release of VC was affected mainly by matrix type and VC-loaded location in microparticles. The therapeutic immunogenic potential of VC loaded with 50:50 PLG, 75:25 PLG and PLA/PEG-blended microparticles was evaluated in adult mice by oral immunization. Significantly higher antibody responses and serum immunoglobin Ig G, IgA and IgM responses were obtained when sera from both VC-loaded 75:25 PLG and PLA/PEG-blended microparticles immunized mice were titrated against VC. The most immunogenicity in evoking serum IgG, IgA and IgM responses was immunized by VC-loaded PLA/PEG-blended microparticles, and with VC challenge in mice, the survival rate (91.7%).

Improving protein delivery from microparticles using blends of poly(DL lactide co-glycolide) and poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) copolymers.

PURPOSE: Microparticles containing ovalbumin as a model for protein drugs were formulated from blends of poly(DL lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) copolymers (Pluronic). The objectives were to achieve uniform release characteristics and improved protein delivery capacity. METHODS: The water- in oil -in oil emulsion/solvent extraction technique was used for microparticle production. RESULTS: A protein loading level of over 40% (w/w) was attained in microparticles having a mean diameter of approximately 5 microns. Linear protein release profiles over 25 days in vitro were exhibited by certain blend formulations incorporating hydrophilic Pluronic F127. The release profile tended to plateau after 10 days when the more hydrophobic Pluronic L121 copolymer was used to prepare microparticles. A delivery capacity of 3 micrograms OVA/mg particles/ day was achieved by formulation of microparticles using a 1:2 blend of PLG:Pluronic F127. CONCLUSIONS: The w/o/o formulation approach in combination with PLG:Pluronic blends shows potential for improving the delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides from microparticulate systems. Novel vaccine formulations are also feasible by incorporation of Pluronic L121 in the microparticles as a co-adjuvant.

The mechanism of PLA microparticle formation by water-in-oil-in-water solvent evaporation method.

Microparticles containing ovalbumin as a model protein drug were prepared using poly(L-lactide; PLA) with a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion/solvent evaporation technique. The dispersed phase was PLA dissolved in dichloromethane (DCM), and the continuous phase was water-containing polyvinyl pyrolidone (PVP) as stabilizer with sodium chloride. Microparticle characteristics, loading efficiencies, protein distribution in microparticles, and in-vitro release properties were investigated. The OVA leaking into the continuous phase during the formation of microparticle by DCM evaporation was also evaluated. Results show that OVA was successfully entrapped in the microparticles with trapping efficiencies up to 72%, loading level 8.7% w/v, and particle size 14 microm. The semi-solid suspension changes to a solid particle happened during a 10-min period. Total protein-leaking amount was reduced after addition of NaCl in the continuous aqueous phase, which resulted from reducing the solidification time and protein-leaking rate. Using 5% w/v NaCl in the continuous phase resulted in higher loading content (87.2 +/- 1.0 microg/mg), and loading efficiency (72.2%), which resulted from more protein in the deeper layer (50.2 +/- 2.3 microg/mg) and higher microparticle yield (75.2%) than without NaCl (loading content: 74.0 +/- 1.0 microg/mg; loading efficiency 51.8%; deeper layer content: 18.3 +/- 3.5 microg/mg; yield: 63.6%). These results constitute a step forward in the improvement of existing technology in controlling protein encapsulation and delivery from microparticles prepared by the multiple emulsion solvent evaporation method.

Anaerobic stability of aqueous physostigmine solution.

The anaerobic stability of physostigmine was studied in this report. Physostigmine and two important degradants, eseroline and rubreserine, were identified by a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system using a photodiode array detector and a UV detector at the retention times of 12.4, 9.2, and 7.9 min. Under anaerobic treatment, the minimum degradation rate constant was found at pH 3.4, evaluating from pH-rate profiles at 45 degrees C, 55 degrees C, and 70 degrees C with the pH range 2.4-6.8. The degradation of physostigmine was suggested as specific acid-base catalysis. Anaerobic activation energies of KH, K(OH), and Kobs were 9.4, 8.3, and 17.9 kcal/mol, respectively. The ratios of observed aerobic and anaerobic rate constants were 2-33 at 88 degrees C, which had a trend to increase ratios as pH increased in the range 2.4-5.2. The shelf life of physostigmine solution was estimated to be 4 years at room temperature under anaerobic conditions at pH 3.4.

Optimizing formulation factors in preparing chitosan microparticles by spray-drying method.

The chitosan only, chitosan/Pluronic F68, chitosan/gelatin, chitosan/Pluronic F68/gelatin microparticles and betamethasone-loaded chitosan/Pluronic F68/gelatin microparticles were successfully prepared by a spray-drying method. Microparticle characteristics (yield rate, zeta potential, particle size and tap density), loading efficiencies, microparticle morphology and in-vitro release properties were investigated. By properly choosing excipient type, concentration and varying the spray-drying parameters, a high degree of control was achieved over the physical properties of the dry chitosan powders. SEM micrograph shows that the particle sizes of the varied chitosan composed microparticles ranged from 2.12-5.67 microm and the external surfaces appear smooth. Using betamethasone as model drug, the spray-drying is a promising way to produce good spherical and smooth surface microparticles with a narrow particle size range for controlled delivery of betamethasone. The positively charged betamethasone-loaded microparticles entrapped in the chitosan/Pluronic F68/gelatin microparticles with trapping efficiencies up to 94.5%, yield rate 42.5% and mean particle size 5.64 microm varied between 4.32-6.20 microm and tap densities 0.128 g/cm(3). The pH of particle was increased with increasing betamethasone-loaded amount, but both zeta potential and tap density of the particles decreased with increasing betamethasone-loaded amount. The betamethasone release rates from chitosan/Pluronic F68/gelatin microparticles were influenced by the drug/polymer ratio in the manner that an increase in the release% and burst release% was observed when the drug loading was decreased. The in vitro release of betamethasone showed a dose-dependent burst followed by a slower release phase that was proportional to the drug concentration in the concentration range between 14-44%w/w.

In vivo and in vitro characteristics for insulin-loaded PLA microparticles prepared by w/o/w solvent evaporation method with electrolytes in the continuous phase.

Insulin-loaded poly(lactide) (PLA) microparticles were successfully prepared by 6% w/v PLA in the organic phase, 10% w/v PVP and varied types of 5%w/v electrolytes in the continuous phase, by using a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion/ solvent extraction technique. Addition of electrolytes such as NaCl, CaCl2 into the external phase significantly improved insulin entrapment efficiency compared to the case of no additives. NaCl was the most effective for obtaining high entrapment efficiency, with microparticle yield 81.2%, trapping efficiencies 49%, insulin-loading level 5.5% w/w and mean particle size 14.8 microm. The distribution (%) of insulin on the PLA microparticles surface, outer layer and core were 8, 37 and 43%, respectively. The cumulative release of insulin had an upper limit of approximately 24% of the insulin load at 24 days. A steady release rate was 0.5 microg insulin/mg microparticles/day of insulin release maintained for 24 days. Total protein-leaking amount was reduced after addition of electrolytes in the continuous aqueous phase. Rabbit glucose levels were evaluated after subcutaneous 20 mg insulin-loaded PLA microparticles or PLA blank microparticles. Study results show that the insulin-loaded PLA microparticles significantly reduced the glucose level than PLA blank microparticles. The insulin-loaded PLA microparticles, physicochemical characterization data and the animal result obtained in this study may be relevant in optimizing the PLA microparticle formulation incorporation and delivery insulin carriers.

The mechanism of surface-indented protein-loaded PLGA microparticle formation: the effects of salt (NaCl) on the solidification process.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate ovalbumin (OVA) leakage pathways and to explore the mechanism of the surface-indented microparticle formation in the preparation of OVA-loaded microparticles. OVA-loaded poly (D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles were prepared by a water-in oil-in water (w/o/w) solvent evaporation method associated with varied NaCl (NaCl) concentrations and adjusted with urea at 1240mOsm kg(-1) in the external aqueous phase. To evaluate dichloromethane (DCM)-related OVA leakage, three stirring rates, 600, 800, 1000rpm at 25 degrees C were carried out during the solvent evaporation stage. Both DCM and OVA levels in the external phase medium and total dispersion were sampled and measured. The time course of particle characteristics was evaluated by microscopy or SEM photography. The surface adsorptive capacities of the prepared microparticles were measured by using bovine serum albumin conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC-BSA). The findings were that the DCM-related OVA leakage accounted for approximately 34%, of the total leakage. By combining NaCl in the external phase, a faster solidifying crust-like structure was formed as a barrier to remarkably reduce OVA loss and improve OVA content from 40.1 to 72.8 microg mg(-1). The yield and OVA content for formulations containing NaCl were much improved by the ionic effect, in addition to the osmotic effect. The total entrapment efficiency was also highly increased from 43 to 72%. The formations of the crust-like surface structure of the microparticle were affected by entrapped drugs, salt content in the external phase and aqueous volume in the inner phase. A scheme was proposed to interpret the formation mechanism of the surface-indented microparticles. In comparison to the surface-smooth microparticles, the surface adsorptive capacities of the surface-indented microparticles were highly improved from 26.6 to 87.0%, determined by the adsorption of FITC-BSA.

Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine formulations using PLA lamellar and PLG microparticles.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)-loaded poly(lactide) (PLA) lamellar and poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) microparticles were successfully prepared with low molecular weight PLA by the precipitate method and with 6% w/v PLG in the organic phase, 10% w/v PVP and 5% w/v NaCl in the continuous phase, by using a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion/solvent extraction technique, respectively. JEV was entrapped in the PLG microparticles by a solvent extraction technique with trapping efficiencies up to 98%, loading level 5.5% w/w, and mean particle size 3.8 microm. The distribution (%) of JEV on the PLG microparticles surface, outer layer, and core were 11.2, 41.7 and 46.4%, respectively. The cumulative release of JEV had an upper limit of approximately 58% of the JEV load at 24 days. The steady release rate was 1.33 microg JEV/mg microparticles/day of JEV release maintained for 24 days. The corresponding virus loading of the PLA lamellae is approximately 0.78% w/w and the loading efficiency (77.8%), JEV content (7.84 microg/mg), and yield (96.3%), respectively. The distribution (%) of JEV on the microparticles surface, outer layer, and core were 82.1, 13.3 and 2.2%, respectively. The live JEV challenge in mice test, in which mice received one dose of 20 mg JEV-loaded PLG microparticles, 20 mg JEV-loaded PLA lamellar in comparison with JEV or PBS solution, was evaluated after IP immunization of BALB/c mice. The study results show that the greatest survival was observed in the group of mice immunized with 20 mg JEV-loaded PLG microparticles and 20 mg JEV-loaded PLA microparticles group (80%). The JEV incorporation, physicochemical characterization data, and the animal results obtained in this study may be relevant in optimizing the vaccine incorporation and delivery properties of these potential vaccine targeting carriers.