Scaffold protein enigma homolog 1 overcomes the repression of myogenesis activation by inhibitor of DNA binding 2.

Enigma Homolog 1 (ENH1) is a scaffold protein for signaling proteins and transcription factors. Previously, we reported that ENH1 overexpression promotes the differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the role of ENH1 in the C2C12 cells differentiation remains elusive. ENH1 was shown to inhibit the proliferation of neuroblastoma cells by sequestering Inhibitor of DNA binding protein 2 (Id2) in the cytosol. Id2 is a repressor of basic Helix-Loop-Helix transcription factors activity and prevents myogenesis. Here, we found that ENH1 overcome the Id2 repression of C2C12 cells myogenic differentiation and that ENH1 overexpression promotes mice satellite cells activation, the first step toward myogenic differentiation. In addition, we show that ENH1 interacted with Id2 in C2C12 cells and mice satellite cells. Collectively, our results suggest that ENH1 plays an important role in the activation of myogenesis through the repression of Id2 activity.

Mutational analysis of hepatitis B virus pre-S1 (9-24) fusogenic peptide.

A hollow nanoparticle known as a bio-nanocapsule (BNC) consisting of hepatitis B virus (HBV) envelope L protein and liposome (LP) can encapsulate drugs and genes and thereby deliver them in vitro and in vivo to human hepatic tissues, specifically by utilizing the HBV-derived infection machinery. Recently, we identified a low pH-dependent fusogenic domain at the N-terminal part of the pre-S1 region of the HBV L protein (amino acid residues 9 to 24; NPLGFFPDHQLDPAFG), which shows membrane destabilizing activity (i.e., membrane fusion, membrane disruption, and payload release) upon interaction with target LPs. In this study, instead of BNC and HBV, we generated LPs displaying a mutated form of the pre-S1 (9-24) peptide, and performed a membrane disruption assay using target LPs containing pyranine (fluorophore) and p-xylene-bis (N-pyridinium bromide) (DPX) as a quencher. The membrane disruption activity was found to correlate with the hydrophobicity of the whole structure, while the peptide retained a random-coil structure even under low pH condition. One large hydrophobic cluster (I) and one small hydrophobic cluster (II) residing in the peptide would be connected by the protonation of residues D16 and D20, and thereby exhibit strong membrane disruption activity in a low pH-dependent manner. Furthermore, the introduction of a positively charged residue enhanced the activity significantly, suggesting that a sole positively charged residue (H17) may be important for the interaction with target LPs by electrostatic interaction. Collectively, these results suggest that the pre-S1 (9-24) peptide may be involved in the endosomal escape of the BNC's payloads, as well as in the HBV uncoating process.

Cytokine-dependent activation of JAK-STAT pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Protein phosphorylation is an important post-translational modification for intracellular signaling molecules, mostly found in serine and threonine residues. Tyrosine phosphorylations are very few events (less than 0.1% to phosphorylated serine/threonine residues), but capable of governing cell fate decisions involved in proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and oncogenic transformation. Hence, it is important for drug discovery and system biology to measure the intracellular level of phosphotyrosine. Although mammalian cells have been conventionally utilized for this purpose, accurate determination of phosphotyrosine level often suffers from high background due to the unexpected crosstalk among endogenous signaling molecules. This situation led us firstly to establish the ligand-induced activation of homomeric receptor tyrosine kinase (i.e., epidermal growth factor receptor) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a lower eukaryote possessing organelles similar to higher eukaryote but not showing substantial level of tyrosine kinase activity. In this study, we expressed heteromeric receptor tyrosine kinase (i.e., a complex of interleukin-5 receptor (IL5R) α chain, common ß chain, and JAK2 tyrosine kinase) in yeast. When coexpressed with a cell wall-anchored form of IL5, the yeast exerted the autophosphorylation of JAK2, followed by the phosphorylation of transcription factor STAT5a and subsequent nuclear accumulation of phosphorylated STAT5a. Taken together, yeast could be an ideal host for sensitive detection of phosphotyrosine generated by a wide variety of tyrosine kinases. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1796-1804. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Oligomerization-induced conformational change in the C-terminal region of Nel-like molecule 1 (NELL1) protein is necessary for the efficient mediation of murine MC3T3-E1 cell adhesion and spreading.

NELL1 is a large oligomeric secretory glycoprotein that functions as an osteoinductive factor. NELL1 contains several conserved domains, has structural similarities to thrombospondin 1, and supports osteoblastic cell adhesion through integrins. To define the structural requirements for NELL1-mediated cell adhesion, we prepared a series of recombinant NELL1 proteins (intact, deleted, and cysteine-mutant) from a mammalian expression system and tested their activities. A deletion analysis demonstrated that the C-terminal cysteine-rich region of NELL1 is critical for the cell adhesion activity of NELL1. Reducing agent treatment decreased the cell adhesion activity of full-length NELL1 but not of its C-terminal fragments, suggesting that the intramolecular disulfide bonds within this region are not functionally necessary but that other disulfide linkages in the N-terminal region of NELL1 may be involved in cell adhesion activity. By replacing cysteine residues with serines around the coiled-coil domain of NELL1, which is responsible for oligomerization, we created a mutant NELL1 protein that was unable to form homo-oligomers, and this monomeric mutant showed substantially lower cell adhesion activity than intact NELL1. These results suggest that an oligomerization-induced conformational change in the C-terminal region of NELL1 is important for the efficient mediation of cell adhesion and spreading by NELL1.

Eicosapentaenoic Acid combined with optimal statin therapy improves endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease.

PURPOSE: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) has been reported to augment endothelial function and improve clinical outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to determine whether EPA could improve residual endothelial dysfunction despite adequate lipid-lowering with statin in CAD patients. METHODS: Eighty patients with established CAD, who had been on statin treatment and had serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels <100 mg/dl, were randomly assigned to receive either 1,800 mg of EPA daily plus statin (EPA group, n = 40) or statin alone (Control group, n = 40). Lipid profiles and flow-mediated dilation (FMD) were assessed just before and after more than 3 months of treatment in both groups. Only patients who had impaired FMD (<6 %) before randomization were enrolled. RESULTS: After treatment for 5.2 ± 1.7 months, the EPA group showed a significant increase in the serum concentration of EPA and EPA to arachidonic acid (AA) (EPA/AA) ratio (62.5 ± 38.1 to 159.8 ± 53.8 µg/ml, 0.45 ± 0.34 to 1.20 ± 0.55, p < 0.01 for both). In the EPA group, serum triglycerides significantly decreased (150.7 ± 92.9 to 119.3 ± 60.7 mg/dl, p = 0.02), whereas no significant change was seen in the Control group. FMD, the primary study endpoint, showed a significant improvement in the EPA group (2.6 ± 1.6 % to 3.2 ± 1.6%, p = 0.02), whereas no significant change was observed in the Control group (2.7 ± 1.6% to 2.4 ± 1.7 %, p = 0.29). CONCLUSIONS: EPA improved endothelial function and impaired FMD in patients with established CAD who were on optimal statin therapy.

Cell surface-fluorescence immunosorbent assay for real-time detection of hybridomas with efficient antibody secretion at the single-cell level.

For establishing cells that secrete antibodies most efficiently (e.g., hybridomas, CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells), the screening and subsequent breeding of promising cells have been performed at the single-colony level, which requires several weeks to propagate a substantial number of cells by forming colonies from single cells for evaluation by the conventional assays. However, this screening process lacks high-throughput performance in time and colony numbers. Therefore, development of novel methods is expected to identify single cells secreting higher amounts of antibodies in real-time and in a nondestructive manner without colony formation. In this study, we prepared lipid-labeled antimouse IgG Fc antibodies (capture molecules) that were uniformly displayed on the surface of candidate cells. Secreted nascent antibodies were subsequently sandwiched between capture molecules and fluorescence-labeled antimouse IgG F(ab')(2) F(ab')(2) (detection molecules). This newly developed method is hereinafter referred to as a cell surface-fluorescence immunosorbent assay (CS-FIA). The fluorescence intensity of each cell was found to correlate well with the amount of sandwiched antibodies (from 6.25 fg/cell to 6.40 pg/cell). When about 4 × 10(3) cells of mouse hybridomas were subjected to CS-FIA, we isolated 28 hybridomas showing the highest fluorescence intensity within a day. Furthermore, after propagation of single cells to about 10(5) cells (after 2 weeks), 20 hybridomas were still able to secrete higher amounts (up to 7-fold) of antibodies than parental hybridomas. Our results demonstrate that CS-FIA is a powerful method for the single-cell-based establishment of cells that secrete most efficiently not only antibodies but also various biomolecules.

Nanocapsule-based probe for evaluating the orientation of antibodies immobilized on a solid phase.

The orientation of sensing molecules on solid phase biosensors has to be optimized to facilitate efficient binding of analytes. Since conventional observation methods (e.g., electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry) require exaggerated machines and possess insufficient resolution for single molecule analyses, functional assays based on the reactivity to analytes have thus far been used for this optimization. However, it is not clear whether these assays can judge whether sensing molecules are fixed in an oriented-immobilization manner or not. Here, we describe that bio-nanocapsules of about 30 nm diameter, displaying approximately 120 molecules of a tandem form of the immunoglobulin (Ig) G Fc-binding Z domain (ZZ-BNCs), can discriminate between the Fc regions of IgGs fixed in an oriented-immobilization manner and those fixed randomly, thus facilitating the evaluation of the orientation of IgGs in immunosensors. Furthermore, in sandwich immunoassays, ZZ-BNCs can bind specifically to detection-IgGs fixed in an oriented-immobilization manner by antigen-capture IgG complexes, rather than to capture-IgGs fixed randomly onto a solid phase, allowing the simultaneous use of the same IgG as capture- and detection-IgGs. Thus, we demonstrate that ZZ-BNCs are a unique probe for evaluating the orientation of IgGs on a solid phase.

A bio-nanocapsule containing envelope protein domain III of Japanese encephalitis virus protects mice against lethal Japanese encephalitis virus infection.

An engineered bio-nanocapsule (BNC) comprising modified hepatitis B surface antigen L protein was used as a physical scaffold for envelope protein domain III (D3) of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). At the N terminus, the BNC contained a two-tandem repeat of the Z domain (ZZ) derived from Staphylococcus aureus protein A (ZZ-BNC). The Lys-rich ZZ moiety exposed on the surface of ZZ-BNC was used for chemical conjugation with the JEV D3 antigen, which had been expressed and purified from Escherichia coli. Immunization of mice with D3 loaded on the surface of ZZ-BNC (ZZ-BNC:D3) augmented serum IgG response against JEV and increased protection against lethal JEV infection. The present study suggests that innocuous recombinant antigens, when loaded on the surface of ZZ-BNC, can be transformed to immunogenic antigens.

Bio-nanocapsules for signal enhancement of alkaline phosphatase-linked immunosorbent assays.

The bio-nanocapsules displaying about 240 molecules of immunoglobulin G Fc-binding Z domains (ZZ-BNCs) enhanced the signals of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay by tethering the Fc regions of secondary antibodies (Abs), which were eliminated using high-molecular mass enzymes (e.g., alkaline phosphatase). By way of optimizing the distance between enzymes and Abs, ZZ-BNCs improved sensitivity independently of enzymes.

Aortopulmonary artery fistula: ruptured aneurysm of the distal aortic arch into the pulmonary artery.

Aortopulmonary artery fistula is uncommon, but the clinical outcome is often lethal. A 76-year-old man with a history of acute thoracic aortic dissection 6 years previously was admitted with dyspnea. A chest x-ray showed pleural effusion and pulmonary congestion. Transthoracic echocardiography revealed preserved systolic function, but continuous and abnormal flow from the distal aortic arch into the pulmonary artery (PA). Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) in the Doppler color-flow mode demonstrated a left-to-right shunt between a large distal aortic arch aneurysm and the left PA via an aortopulmonary fistula and a pressure gradient across the shunt of 56 mmHg. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography showed that the aneurysm compressed the PA. Aortography also revealed a large distal aortic arch aneurysm and almost simultaneous contrast enhancement of the aorta and the PA. Right-heart catheterization showed a significant increase in oxygen saturation between the right ventricle and the PA. A left-to-right shunt due to a distal aortic arch aneurysm rupturing into the left PA was diagnosed based on these findings. TEE was very helpful in confirming the presence and precise location of the fistula.

Targeting of polyplex to human hepatic cells by bio-nanocapsules, hepatitis B virus surface antigen L protein particles.

We have previously demonstrated that lipoplex, a complex of cationic liposomes and DNA, could be targeted to human hepatic cells in vitro and in vivo by conjugation with bio-nanocapsules (BNCs) comprising hepatitis B virus (HBV) surface antigen L protein particles. Because the BNC-lipoplex complexes were endowed with the human hepatic cell-specific infection machinery from HBV, the complexes showed excellent specific transfection efficiency in human hepatic cells. In this study, we have found that polyplex (a complex of polyethyleneimine (PEI) and DNA) could form stable complexes with BNCs spontaneously. The diameter and ζ-potential of BNC-polyplex complexes are about 240 nm and +3.54 mV, respectively, which make them more suitable for in vivo use than polyplex alone. BNC-polyplex complexes with an N/P ratio (the molar ratio of the amine group of PEI to the phosphate group of DNA) of 40 showed excellent transfection efficiency in human hepatic cells. When acidification of endosomes was inhibited by bafilomycin A1, the complexes showed higher transfection efficiency than polyplex itself, strongly suggesting that the complexes escaped from endosomes by both fusogenic activity of BNCs and proton sponge activity of polyplex. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity is comparable to that of polyplex of the same N/P value. Thus, BNC-polyplex complexes would be a promising gene delivery carrier for human liver-specific gene therapy.

Efficient and rapid purification of drug- and gene-carrying bio-nanocapsules, hepatitis B virus surface antigen L particles, from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Bio-nanocapsules (BNCs) are hollow particles (approx. 50 nm diameter) consisting of hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) large (L, pre-S1+pre-S2+S) proteins embedded in a unilamellar liposome, sharing the same transmembrane S region with an immunogen of hepatitis B vaccine (i.e., HBsAg small (S) protein particle). BNCs can incorporate drugs and genes into the hollow space and systemic administration of the BNCs can deliver the products to human liver via the human hepatocyte-specific receptor within the pre-S (pre-S1+pre-S2) region displayed on BNC's surface. Thus, BNCs are expected to offer efficient and safe non-viral nanocarriers to deliver human liver-specific genes and drugs. To date, BNCs have been purified from the crude extract of BNC-overexpressing yeast cells by fractionation with polyethylene glycol followed by one CsCl equilibrium and two sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation steps. However, the process was inefficient in terms of yield and time, and was not suitable for mass production because of the ultracentrifugation step. Furthermore, trace contamination with yeast-derived proteinases degraded the pre-S region, which is indispensable for liver-targeting, during long-term storage. In this study, we developed a new purification method involving heat treatment and sulfated cellulofine column chromatography to facilitate rapid purification, completely remove proteinases, and enable mass production. In addition, the BNCs were functional for at least 14 months after lyophilization with 5% (w/v) sucrose as an excipient. This new process will significantly contribute to the development of forthcoming BNC-based nanomedicines as well as hepatitis B vaccines.

High-Throughput Analysis of Mammalian Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Activation in Yeast Cells.

Tyrosine phosphorylation is an essential posttranslational modification in intracellular signaling molecules. Since tyrosine phosphorylation occurs in less than 0.1 % of all phosphorylated amino acids in mammalian cells, it is difficult to detect the nascent phosphotyrosine at a high signal-to-noise ratio due to high intracellular backgrounds (i.e., unexpected crosstalks among endogenous signaling molecules). In order to address this issue, we reconstituted the mammalian signaling pathway involving an extracellular ligand and a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a lower eukaryote that lacks endogenous tyrosine kinases. In this chapter, we describe a method for high-throughput analysis of ligand-receptor interaction by combining the yeast cell-surface display technique with an automated single-cell analysis and isolation system. Yeast cells coexpressing the cell-wall-anchored form of the human epidermal growth factor (EGF) and the human EGF receptor (EGFR) fused with a signal peptide at the N terminus facilitated the interaction of EGF with EGFR in an autocrine manner, followed by EGFR oligomerization and subsequent autophosphorylation. Furthermore, yeast cells expressing cell-wall-anchored forms of a conformationally constrained random peptide library instead of EGF are treated with a fluorophore-labeled anti-phosphorylated EGFR antibody and then subjected to the automated single-cell analysis and isolation system. The yeast cells with the highest level of fluorescence were shown to display novel and efficient EGFR agonistic peptides. Thus, our yeast display technique serves as a quantitative measurement for RTK activation, which is applicable to high-throughput de novo screening of RTK agonistic peptides.

Momentary and wide aortic regurgitation as an indicator of aortic dissection.

A 55-year-old female with a history of hypertension was admitted for dyspnea, epigastralgia and nausea. A chest X-ray showed pulmonary congestion. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) revealed severe left ventricular dysfunction with akinesis of the infero-posterior wall and Doppler color-flow mode showed mild aortic regurgitation (AR). Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation, intravenous heparin and diuretics were administered. Follow-up TTE revealed a dissection flap as well as momentary and wide AR only during isovolumetric relaxation. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography of the chest revealed Stanford type A aortic dissection. A momentary and wide AR in echocardiograms might serve as an important and useful indicator of aortic dissection in patients with acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure.

Deciphering the Receptor Repertoire Encoding Specific Odorants by Time-Lapse Single-Cell Array Cytometry.

Mammals can recognize a vast number of odorants by using olfactory receptors (ORs) known as G protein-coupled receptors. The OR gene family is one of the most diverse gene families in mammalian genomes. Because of the vast combinations of ORs and odorants, few ORs have thus far been linked to specific odorants. Here, we established a functional screening method for OR genes by using a microchamber array containing >5,400 single olfactory epithelium-derived cells from mice applied to time-lapse single-cell array cytometry. This method facilitated the prompt isolation of single olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) responding to the odorant of interest. Subsequent single-cell RT-PCR allowed us to isolate the genes encoding respective ORs. By using volatile molecules recognized as biomarkers for lung cancers, this method could deorphanize ORs and thereby reconstitute the OR-mediated signaling cascade in HEK293T cells. Thus, our system could be applied to identify any receptor by using specific ligands in the fields of physiopathology and pharmacology.

Bio-nanocapsule-based scaffold improves the sensitivity and ligand-binding capacity of mammalian receptors on the sensor chip.

Mammalian receptors are recognized as target molecules for drug discovery, and chemical libraries have been screened for both potential antagonists and agonists mainly by ligand-binding assays using immobilized receptors. A bio-nanocapsule (BNC) of approximately 30 nm that displays a tandem form of the protein A-derived immunoglobulin G (IgG) Fc-binding Z domains (denoted as ZZ-BNC) has been developed for both clustering and oriented immobilization of IgGs on the solid phase of immunosensors. In this study, human IgG1 Fc-fused vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor was immobilized through ZZ-BNC on the sensor chip of quartz crystal microbalance (ZZ-BNC-coating). When compared with direct adsorption and protein A-coating, the sensor chip showed higher sensitivity (∽46- and ∽165-fold, respectively) and larger ligand-binding capacity (∽4- and ∽18-fold, respectively). Furthermore, the number of VEGF molecules bound to its receptor increased from 0.20 (direct adsorption) to 2.06 by ZZ-BNC-coating, strongly suggesting that ZZ-BNC reduced the steric hindrance near ligand recognition sites through oriented immobilization. Similarly, the sensitivity and ligand-binding capacity of leptin and prolactin receptors were both enhanced at a level comparable to that observed for the VEGF receptor. Thus, the combination of ZZ-BNC and Fc-fused receptors could significantly improve the function of ligand-binding assays.

RBM20 and RBM24 cooperatively promote the expression of short enh splice variants.

PDZ-LIM protein ENH1 is a scaffold protein for protein kinases and transcriptional regulators. While ENH1 promotes the hypertrophic growth of cardiomyocytes, its short splice variant (ENH3) prevents the hypertrophic growth. The mechanism underlying the alternative splicing of enh mRNA between ENH short and long isoforms has remained unknown. Here, we found that two splicing factors, RNA-binding motif 20 (RBM20) and RNA-binding motif 24 (RBM24) together promoted the expression of short enh splice variants and bound the 5' intronic region of exon 11 containing an in-phase stop codon. In addition, expression of both RBMs is repressed by hypertrophic stimulations. Collectively, our results suggest that, in healthy conditions, RBM20 and RBM24 cooperate to promote the expression of short ENH isoforms.

Bio-nanocapsules displaying various immunoglobulins as an active targeting-based drug delivery system.

The bio-nanocapsule (BNC) is an approximately 30-nm particle comprising the hepatitis B virus (HBV) envelope L protein and a lipid bilayer. The L protein harbors the HBV-derived infection machinery; therefore, BNC can encapsulate payloads such as drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins and deliver them into human hepatocytes specifically in vitro and in vivo. To diversify the possible functions of BNC, we generated ZZ-BNC by replacing the domain indispensable for the human hepatotrophic property of BNC (N-terminal region of L protein) with the tandem form of the IgG Fc-binding Z domain of Staphylococcus aureus protein A. Thus, the ZZ-BNC is an active targeting-based drug delivery system (DDS) nanocarrier that depends on the specificity of the IgGs displayed. However, the Z domain limits the animal species and subtypes of IgGs that can be displayed on ZZ-BNC. In this study, we introduced into BNC an Ig κ light chain-binding B1 domain of Finegoldia magna protein L (protein-L B1 domain) and an Ig Fc-binding C2 domain of Streptococcus species protein G (protein-G C2 domain) to produce LG-BNC. The LL-BNC was constructed in a similar way using a tandem form of the protein-L B1 domain. Both LG-BNC and LL-BNC could display rat IgGs, mouse IgG1, human IgG3, and human IgM, all of which not binding to ZZ-BNC, and accumulate in target cells in an antibody specificity-dependent manner. Thus, these BNCs could display a broad spectrum of Igs, significantly improving the prospects for BNCs as active targeting-based DDS nanocarriers. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We previously reported that ZZ-BNC, bio-nanocapsule deploying the IgG-binding Z domain of protein A, could display cell-specific antibody in an oriented immobilization manner, and act as an active targeting-based DDS nanocarrier. Since the Z domain can only bind to limited types of Igs, we generated BNCs deploying other Ig-binding domains: LL-BNC harboring the tandem form of Ig-binding domain of protein L, and LG-BNC harboring the Ig binding domains of protein L and protein G sequentially. Both BNCs could display a broader spectrum of Igs than does the ZZ-BNC. When these BNCs displayed anti-CD11c IgG or anti-EGFR IgG, both of which cannot bind to Z domain, they could bind to and then enter their respective target cells.

Cellular uptake of hepatitis B virus envelope L particles is independent of sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide, but dependent on heparan sulfate proteoglycan.

Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) was recently discovered as a hepatitis B virus (HBV) receptor, however, the detailed mechanism of HBV entry is not yet fully understood. We investigated the cellular entry pathway of HBV using recombinant HBV surface antigen L protein particles (bio-nanocapsules, BNCs). After the modification of L protein in BNCs with myristoyl group, myristoylated BNCs (Myr-BNCs) were found to bind to NTCP in vitro, and inhibit in vitro HBV infection competitively, suggesting that Myr-BNCs share NTCP-dependent infection machinery with HBV. Nevertheless, the cellular entry rates of Myr-BNCs and plasma-derived HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) particles were the same as those of BNCs in NTCP-overexpressing HepG2 cells. Moreover, the cellular entry of these particles was mainly driven by heparan sulfate proteoglycan-mediated endocytosis regardless of NTCP expression. Taken together, cell-surface NTCP may not be involved in the cellular uptake of HBV, while presumably intracellular NTCP plays a critical role.

Scaffold protein enigma homolog activates CREB whereas a short splice variant prevents CREB activation in cardiomyocytes.

Enigma Homolog (ENH1 or Pdlim5) is a scaffold protein composed of an N-terminal PDZ domain and three LIM domains at the C-terminal end. The enh gene encodes for several splice variants with opposing functions. ENH1 promotes cardiomyocytes hypertrophy whereas ENH splice variants lacking LIM domains prevent it. ENH1 interacts with various Protein Kinase C (PKC) isozymes and Protein Kinase D1 (PKD1). In addition, the binding of ENH1's LIM domains to PKC is sufficient to activate the kinase without stimulation. The downstream events of the ENH1-PKC/PKD1 complex remain unknown. PKC and PKD1 are known to phosphorylate the transcription factor cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB). We tested whether ENH1 could play a role in the activation of CREB. We found that, in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes, ENH1 interacts with CREB, is necessary for the phosphorylation of CREB at ser133, and the activation of CREB-dependent transcription. On the contrary, the overexpression of ENH3, a LIM-less splice variant, inhibited the phosphorylation of CREB. ENH3 overexpression or shRNA knockdown of ENH1 prevented the CREB-dependent transcription. Our results thus suggest that ENH1 plays an essential role in CREB's activation and dependent transcription in cardiomyocytes. At the opposite, ENH3 prevents the CREB transcriptional activity. In conclusion, these results provide a first molecular explanation to the opposing functions of ENH splice variants.