Nuclear condensates of the Polycomb protein chromobox 2 (CBX2) assemble through phase separation.

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins repress master regulators of development and differentiation through organization of chromatin structure. Mutation and dysregulation of PcG genes cause developmental defects and cancer. PcG proteins form condensates in the cell nucleus, and these condensates are the physical sites of PcG-targeted gene silencing via formation of facultative heterochromatin. However, the physiochemical principles underlying the formation of PcG condensates remain unknown, and their determination could shed light on how these condensates compact chromatin. Using fluorescence live-cell imaging, we observed that the Polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1) protein chromobox 2 (CBX2), a member of the CBX protein family, undergoes phase separation to form condensates and that the CBX2 condensates exhibit liquid-like properties. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrated that the conserved residues of CBX2 within the intrinsically disordered region (IDR), which is the region for compaction of chromatin in vitro, promote the condensate formation both in vitro and in vivo We showed that the CBX2 condensates concentrate DNA and nucleosomes. Using genetic engineering, we report that trimethylation of Lys-27 at histone H3 (H3K27me3), a marker of heterochromatin formation produced by PRC2, had minimal effects on the CBX2 condensate formation. We further demonstrated that the CBX2 condensate formation does not require CBX2-PRC1 subunits; however, the condensate formation of CBX2-PRC1 subunits depends on CBX2, suggesting a mechanism underlying the assembly of CBX2-PRC1 condensates. In summary, our results reveal that PcG condensates assemble through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and suggest that phase-separated condensates can organize PcG-bound chromatin.

Distinct Cellular Assembly Stoichiometry of Polycomb Complexes on Chromatin Revealed by Single-molecule Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Imaging.

Epigenetic complexes play an essential role in regulating chromatin structure, but information about their assembly stoichiometry on chromatin within cells is poorly understood. The cellular assembly stoichiometry is critical for appreciating the initiation, propagation, and maintenance of epigenetic inheritance during normal development and in cancer. By combining genetic engineering, chromatin biochemistry, and single-molecule fluorescence imaging, we developed a novel and sensitive approach termed single-molecule chromatin immunoprecipitation imaging (Sm-ChIPi) to enable investigation of the cellular assembly stoichiometry of epigenetic complexes on chromatin. Sm-ChIPi was validated by using chromatin complexes with known stoichiometry. The stoichiometry of subunits within a polycomb complex and the assembly stoichiometry of polycomb complexes on chromatin have been extensively studied but reached divergent views. Moreover, the cellular assembly stoichiometry of polycomb complexes on chromatin remains unexplored. Using Sm-ChIPi, we demonstrated that within mouse embryonic stem cells, one polycomb repressive complex (PRC) 1 associates with multiple nucleosomes, whereas two PRC2s can bind to a single nucleosome. Furthermore, we obtained direct physical evidence that the nucleoplasmic PRC1 is monomeric, whereas PRC2 can dimerize in the nucleoplasm. We showed that ES cell differentiation induces selective alteration of the assembly stoichiometry of Cbx2 on chromatin but not other PRC1 components. We additionally showed that the PRC2-mediated trimethylation of H3K27 is not required for the assembly stoichiometry of PRC1 on chromatin. Thus, these findings uncover that PRC1 and PRC2 employ distinct mechanisms to assemble on chromatin, and the novel Sm-ChIPi technique could provide single-molecule insight into other epigenetic complexes.

Live-cell single-molecule tracking reveals co-recognition of H3K27me3 and DNA targets polycomb Cbx7-PRC1 to chromatin.

The Polycomb PRC1 plays essential roles in development and disease pathogenesis. Targeting of PRC1 to chromatin is thought to be mediated by the Cbx family proteins (Cbx2/4/6/7/8) binding to histone H3 with a K27me3 modification (H3K27me3). Despite this prevailing view, the molecular mechanisms of targeting remain poorly understood. Here, by combining live-cell single-molecule tracking (SMT) and genetic engineering, we reveal that H3K27me3 contributes significantly to the targeting of Cbx7 and Cbx8 to chromatin, but less to Cbx2, Cbx4, and Cbx6. Genetic disruption of the complex formation of PRC1 facilitates the targeting of Cbx7 to chromatin. Biochemical analyses uncover that the CD and AT-hook-like (ATL) motif of Cbx7 constitute a functional DNA-binding unit. Live-cell SMT of Cbx7 mutants demonstrates that Cbx7 is targeted to chromatin by co-recognizing of H3K27me3 and DNA. Our data suggest a novel hierarchical cooperation mechanism by which histone modifications and DNA coordinate to target chromatin regulatory complexes.

Cbx2 stably associates with mitotic chromosomes via a PRC2- or PRC1-independent mechanism and is needed for recruiting PRC1 complex to mitotic chromosomes.

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are epigenetic transcriptional factors that repress key developmental regulators and maintain cellular identity through mitosis via a poorly understood mechanism. Using quantitative live-cell imaging in mouse ES cells and tumor cells, we demonstrate that, although Polycomb repressive complex (PRC) 1 proteins (Cbx-family proteins, Ring1b, Mel18, and Phc1) exhibit variable capacities of association with mitotic chromosomes, Cbx2 overwhelmingly binds to mitotic chromosomes. The recruitment of Cbx2 to mitotic chromosomes is independent of PRC1 or PRC2, and Cbx2 is needed to recruit PRC1 complex to mitotic chromosomes. Quantitative fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analysis indicates that PRC1 proteins rapidly exchange at interphasic chromatin. On entry into mitosis, Cbx2, Ring1b, Mel18, and Phc1 proteins become immobilized at mitotic chromosomes, whereas other Cbx-family proteins dynamically bind to mitotic chromosomes. Depletion of PRC1 or PRC2 protein has no effect on the immobilization of Cbx2 on mitotic chromosomes. We find that the N-terminus of Cbx2 is needed for its recruitment to mitotic chromosomes, whereas the C-terminus is required for its immobilization. Thus these results provide fundamental insights into the molecular mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance.