An improved cumulative sum-based procedure for prospective disease surveillance for count data in multiple regions.

We present an improved procedure for detecting outbreaks in multiple spatial regions using count data. We combine well-known methods for disease surveillance with recent developments from other areas to provide a more powerful procedure that is still relatively simple and fast to implement. Disease counts from neighboring regions are aggregated to compute a Poisson cumulative sum statistic for each region of interest. Instead of controlling the average run length criterion in the monitoring process, we instead utilize the FDR, which is more appropriate in a public health context. Additionally, p-values are used to make decisions instead of traditional critical values. The use of the FDR and p-values in testing allows us to utilize recently developed multiple testing methodologies, greatly increasing the power of this procedure. This is verified using a simulation experiment. The simplicity and rapid detection ability of this procedure make it useful in disease surveillance settings. The procedure is successfully applied in detecting the 2011 Salmonella Newport outbreak in 16 German federal states. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Approaches for Treating Multiply Controlled Problem Behavior.

A portion of problem behavior is maintained by multiple reinforcement contingencies. Treating multiply controlled problem behavior may be more complex than treating problem behavior maintained by a single contingency. Several approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior have been described in the literature. The purpose of this review is to provide practitioners with an overview of function-based approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior. In particular, we present guidelines for functional analysis and treatment. We also describe strengths and limitations of published treatment approaches and discuss strategies for mitigating these limitations. Finally, we describe areas for future research.

Analyzing the Functional Interdependence of Verbal Behavior with Multiaxial Radar Charts.

The functional analysis of complex verbal behavior requires an evaluation of topographically similar responses under multiple sources of control. Traditional graphical displays of behavior were designed to show the manipulation of isolated controlling variables and may not be amenable to displaying the multidimensional properties of complex behavior. Researchers have recently demonstrated the use of multiaxial radar charts for comparing the functional performance of biological systems. Here we extend the use of multidimensional analyses to compare the relative performance distributions of verbal behavior across four potential controlling variables. First, we provide a conceptual analysis of intraverbal and extraverbal control as continua along which stimuli range from formal to thematic and explain how the intersection of these stimulus fields creates a radar chart for multidimensional analysis. Then we demonstrate how data may be gathered through a verbal operant experimental analysis. We employed repeated measures to map the conditioning history of a child with autism spectrum disorder across 2 years of early intensive behavioral intervention and analyzed the results using shape descriptors for quantitative comparisons. We also compared the polygonal language profiles of children with autism against that of a neurotypical peer. Extending a multidimensional analysis to the field of verbal behavior provides the basis for a language growth chart that researchers and clinicians can use to monitor language acquisition over time. We discuss the use of radar charts as a framework for understanding the interdependence of verbal operants and suggest their use for complex analyses of complex verbal behavior. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40614-024-00404-6.

Facilitating the emergence of intraverbal tacts by autistic children via joint control.

Rodriguez et al. (2022) discovered that teaching four component skills was sufficient to facilitate the emergence of intraverbal tacts across four applications with three participants. Our study replicated and evaluated an extension of this procedure that was directed at facilitating intraverbal tacts when a child learns the component skills but continues to fail to produce intraverbal tacts. The extension consisted of procedures to enhance the divergent control exerted by the auditory stimulus (i.e., the question) and the discriminability of joint control. Intraverbal tacts emerged for all three participants after undergoing the extension procedures. These results are discussed in the context of a conceptual analysis of intraverbal tacts and the potential role of joint control.

A translational evaluation of component skills for the establishment of multiply controlled intraverbals.

Intraverbal behavior is a type of verbal behavior in which the response form has no point-to-point correspondence with its verbal stimulus. However, the form and occurrence of most intraverbals is under the control of multiple variables. Establishing this form of multiple control may depend on a variety of preestablished skills. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to evaluate these potential prerequisites with adult participants using a multiple probe design. The results suggest that training was not required for each putative prerequisite. In Experiment 2, probes for all skills were conducted following convergent intraverbal probes. The results showed that convergent intraverbals only emerged when proficiency of each skill was demonstrated. Finally, Experiment 3 evaluated alternating training of multiple tact and intraverbal categorization. The results showed that this procedure was effective for half of the participants.

Facilitating the emergence of intraverbal tacts in children with autism spectrum disorder: A preliminary analysis.

Intraverbal tacts are an example of multiply controlled verbal behavior. More specifically, they are verbal responses under control of both a nonverbal (visual) stimulus (e.g., a green ball) and a verbal (auditory) stimulus (e.g., "What color?" vs. "What shape?"). Studies have shown that verbal behavior training can be arranged in a way that would lead to the emergence of other verbal operants, including multiply controlled (convergent) intraverbals. Our study sought to evaluate the relevance of a specific set of component skills on the emergence of intraverbal tacts in children with an autism spectrum disorder. Intraverbal tacts were observed only when all component skills were mastered, suggesting that this set of skills was sufficient to produce emergent verbal performance. Preliminary data were obtained on the necessity of 4 of the 6 component skills and tentatively suggest that they may be necessary to produce emergent intraverbal tacts, at least under some conditions.

Control by Compound Antecedent Verbal Stimuli in the Intraverbal Relation.

Control by compound antecedent stimuli in verbal behavior represents an understudied but promising area of research. To date, reference to compound verbal stimulus control has generally only included descriptions of convergent multiple control. A sizeable experimental literature exists on the topic of compound stimulus control, which differs from convergent multiple control in that the stimulus elements often do not have a prior conditioning history (i.e., do not separately strengthen any response). The current study attempted to bridge the experimental and verbal behavior literatures by including a two-component antecedent verbal stimulus during intraverbal training for which neither component currently served an evocative function. Subsequent analyses of stimulus control suggested overshadowing by temporal location in the compound verbal stimulus and lack of emergence of the divergent intraverbal relation across all sets. Additional research is needed on compound stimulus control and verbal behavior researchers may be poised to answer several questions relevant to the experimental and verbal behavior literatures on the topic.

Finding Jack Michael's Footprints in the Sand.

Jack Michael left a legacy of fine discriminations among technical terms, a careful parsing of theoretical concepts, and a variety of behavioral interpretations of complex behavioral phenomena. When pushing into relatively unfamiliar territory in areas such as "memory," automatic reinforcement, multiple control, and additivity of response strength, I have been surprised and delighted to find evidence that Jack had once explored the same topics, in the same way, and had come to the same conclusions toward which I was groping.

Functional analysis and operant treatment of food guarding in a pet dog.

The present study extended functional analysis (FA) methodology to human-directed resource guarding in a dog in an in-home setting. The subject underwent four conditions including control, attention, escape, and tangible, arranged in a modified FA. The results indicated multiply controlled resource guarding (i.e., escape, attention, and tangible functions). The experimenter then conducted a treatment evaluation involving three function-based treatments in a concurrent multiple baseline design. Resource guarding decreased to zero levels in treatments for each maintaining contingency. Treatment effects were maintained when the subject was tested with an owner, with an untrained handler, a highly preferred treat, in an untrained setting, as well as after 2 weeks in the absence of training. Behavior analytic techniques may hold promise for lasting behavior change for resource guarding in domestic dogs, and should be examined in other populations and with other canine problem behavior.

Increasing Response Diversity to Intraverbals in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of intraverbal prompts on response diversity and novelty in intraverbals posed to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The intraverbal prompts involving function, feature, and class (FFC) of an item were used in the training of three questions requiring multiple responses. Two Chinese boys with ASD (aged 5-6 years) served as participants. A multiple-probe across three behaviors design was employed. The results indicated that the intraverbal prompts effectively increased the number of divergent responses to all three questions. Novel responses emerged at a low level while generalization to similar questions was not observed following the training.

Empirical Evaluations of Skinner's Analysis of Problem Solving.

We reviewed 12 studies in which the researcher taught problem-solving strategies, such as self-questioning and visual imagining, to children and adolescents with and without disabilities to facilitate the learning of math, spelling, play/social, and communication skills. We analyzed these studies in terms of types of problem-solving strategies, the multiple control involved in problem solving, the extent to which problem solving occurred at the overt or covert level. In addition to suggesting limitations of the literature, we recommend areas for future research and practice.

The Effect of Joint Control Training on the Performance of Multiply Controlled Behavior: A Systematic Literature Review Relevant to Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Disabilities.

Skinner (1957) differentiated the roles of the speaker and the listener in a verbal encounter. Although not extensively emphasized, Skinner suggested an individual often behaves verbally even when responding as a listener. Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often display the absence of important, and basic verbal repertoires that limit their ability to engage in a variety of social skills or problem-solving skills. Joint control suggests that multiply controlled verbal responding involves functional control of two 2 or more stimuli or verbal operants. This systematic literature review provides a summary of publications specifying the relation and implications of the analysis of joint control and joint control training in the acquisition of multiply controlled, non-speaker behaviors (e.g., selection-based behavior; , sequencing behavior). The synthesis suggests that joint control training presents as a promising analytic tool in guiding interventions to teach complex, multiply controlled verbal and non-verbal repertoires to children diagnosed with autism ASD and/or other developmental disabilities. Recommendations for future research in joint control, as well as the implementation of joint control training, are provided.

The Verbal Behavior Stimulus Control Ratio Equation: a Quantification of Language.

Language is a much sought-after yet elusive subject matter for scientific investigation. Entire fields of study have evolved to address the complexities of language, with most using a structural analysis as the framework for examination. Skinner (Verbal Behavior, 1957) proposed that language fell within the scope of a science of behavior and was therefore open to functional analysis and interpretation. Over the past 60 years, much has been done to further the scientific explanation, prediction, and control of verbal behavior as a function of environmental variables. However, we still need to more accurately describe the subject matter of investigation. The stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE) is a metric to summarize a behavioral repertoire by comparing the relative frequency of its component parts. The verbal behavior SCoRE compares the observed proportions of responding against the null hypothesis to yield a statistic to describe the present level of functional performance. Such information may be useful for measuring change over time and comparing treatment effects within individuals and across groups. This article provides a conceptualization of the interdependence of the verbal operants identified by Skinner (1957), a model for analyzing the entirety of the verbal repertoire, and implications for research and practice.

Facilitating the emergence of convergent intraverbals in children with autism.

Convergent intraverbals represent a specific type of intraverbal in which multiple components of one speaker's verbal behavior control a specific verbal response from another speaker (e.g., Speaker 1: What wooly, horned animal lives in the high country? Speaker 2: Bighorn sheep). To foster the development of advanced language, Sundberg and Sundberg (2011) proposed prerequisite skills that may engender the emergence of novel, convergent intraverbals. We used a multiple-probe design with both nonconcurrent (across participants) and concurrent (across stimulus sets) components to evaluate the effects of training these prerequisite skills on the emergence of convergent intraverbals with four children with autism. Participants showed the emergence of convergent intraverbals at mastery levels after they displayed mastery performance on all of the prerequisite skills identified by Sundberg and Sundberg, lending support to their characterization as prerequisites. We discuss these findings in terms of operant mechanisms that may facilitate the development of generative language.

Evaluation of an Omnibus Mand in the Treatment of Multiply Controlled Destructive Behavior.

Functional communication training is a commonly used and effective treatment for socially reinforced destructive behavior. However, when a functional analysis suggests that destructive behavior is multiply controlled (e.g., by attention, tangibles, and escape), teaching and evaluating separate functional communication responses (FCRs) can be time-consuming or only partially effective when failing to address multiple establishing operations that may occur simultaneously. We evaluated the use of an omnibus FCR or mand that produced access to attention, tangibles, and escape within each functional-analysis test condition for two boys with autism spectrum disorder who displayed multiply controlled destructive behavior. The omnibus-FCR treatment produced low rates of destructive behavior and high percentages of independent FCRs within each condition for both children, suggesting that such a treatment option may reduce destructive behavior and teach communication skills quickly prior to introducing other treatment components, such as teaching individual FCRs to address each unique function of destructive behavior.

Individualized Levels System and Systematic Stimulus Pairing to Reduce Multiply Controlled Aggression of a Child With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Research has shown that physical aggression is common in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Interventions for multiply controlled aggression may be complex and difficult to implement with fidelity. As a result, the probability of treatment efficacy for this class of behavior may suffer. We designed an individualized levels system to reduce the physical aggression of an 11-year-old female with ASD. We then employed a systematic stimulus pairing procedure to facilitate generalization. Results suggest individualized levels systems can suppress multiply controlled aggression and that systematic stimulus pairing is an effective way to transfer treatment effects from trained therapists to caregivers.

Covert verbal mediation in arbitrary matching to sample.

Covert verbal mediation was examined in an arbitrary matching-to-sample (MTS) preparation with a high-verbal group (college students) and a low-verbal group (adults with intellectual disabilities). Arbitrary relations were established between nonsense words, visual symbols, objects, and hand signs. Task difficulty was balanced for the groups based on errors during acquisition. All participants experienced a hand sign condition, and three MTS conditions each with a unique configuration of the comparison array: fixed location, random location, and all symbols the same. The same symbol condition was designed to impede a participant's ability to label individual symbols. The results showed that disrupting labeling adversely affected MTS performance for high-verbal participants, but not for low-verbal participants. The data suggest that high-verbal participants depended on mediating verbal behavior and joint control to assist them in finding the correct comparison stimulus. Low-verbal participants could not benefit from verbal mediating variables and likely relied on unmediated contingencies, or some form of nonverbal mediation. For the high-verbal group, 19 different putative emergent relations were identified as occurring at various stages of acquisition between the sample stimulus and the selection response. These emergent relations likely provided supplementary sources of stimulus control that participated in evoking MTS selection behavior.

Accurate Delayed Matching-to-Sample Responding without Rehearsal: An Unintentional Demonstration with Children.

Research on joint control has focused on mediational responses, in which simultaneous stimulus control from two sources leads to the emission of a single response, such as choosing a comparison stimulus in delayed matching-to-sample. Most recent studies of joint control examined the role of verbal mediators (i.e., rehearsal) in evoking accurate performance. They suggest that mediation is a necessity for accurate delayed matching-to-sample responding. We designed an experiment to establish covert rehearsal responses in young children. Before participants were taught such responses; however, we observed that they responded accurately at delays of 15 and 30 s without overt rehearsal. These findings suggest that in some cases, rehearsal is not necessary for accurate responding in such tasks.

Referent-Based Verbal Behavior Instruction for Children with Autism.

Skinner's (1957) analysis of verbal behavior deconstructed language according to stimulus control. Although the functional independence of these verbal operants has been empirically demonstrated, more commonly, a speaker's verbal behavior is induced by a convergence of controlling stimuli. However, circumscribed stimulus control may inhibit the development of complex verbal repertoires for some individuals, including those with autism spectrum disorders. For this reason, in the current paper, we propose a behavior analytic intervention with the overarching goal of establishing multiple control over verbal behavior through the conditioning of referent stimuli.Referent-based instruction emphasizes teaching the operant class over specific targetsMultiple control is established by converging verbal behavior around the referentProgress is measured in terms of a stimulus control ratioEliminates arbitrary decision making.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase-regulated AZI1 - an attractive candidate for genetic engineering.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases and their targets have been in the limelight of plant stress research. Signaling pathways mediating the responses to multiple stresses deserve particular attention. In a recent study, we reported AZI1, a member of the lipid transfer protein family, to play a role in MPK3-mediated responses to salt stress in Arabidopsis thaliana. MPK3 controls AZI1 at the transcriptional and posttranslational level. The AZI1 protein has several properties that make it very attractive for genetic engineering. A model of multi-level control of AZI1 by MPK3 is proposed, and strategies toward optimizing AZI1 protein properties are briefly discussed.