Single-Atom Iron Can Steer Atomic Hydrogen toward Selective Reductive Dechlorination: Implications for Remediation of Chlorinated Solvents-Impacted Groundwater.

Atomic hydrogen (H*) is a powerful and versatile reductant and has tremendous potential in the degradation of oxidized pollutants (e.g., chlorinated solvents). However, its application for groundwater remediation is hindered by the scavenging side reaction of H2 evolution. Herein, we report that a composite material (Fe0@Fe-N4-C), consisting of zerovalent iron (Fe0) nanoparticles and nitrogen-coordinated single-atom Fe (Fe-N4), can effectively steer H* toward reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene (TCE), a common groundwater contaminant and primary risk driver at many hazardous waste sites. The Fe-N4 structure strengthens the bond between surface Fe atoms and H*, inhibiting H2 evolution. Nonetheless, H* is available for dechlorination, as the adsorption of TCE weakens this bond. Interestingly, H* also enhances electron delocalization and transfer between adsorbed TCE and surface Fe atoms, increasing the reactivity of adsorbed TCE with H*. Consequently, Fe0@Fe-N4-C exhibits high electron selectivity (up to 86%) toward dechlorination, as well as a high TCE degradation kinetic constant. This material is resilient against water matrix interferences, achieving long-lasting performance for effective TCE removal. These findings shed light on the utilization of H* for the in situ remediation of groundwater contaminated with chlorinated solvents, by rational design of earth-abundant metal-based single-atom catalysts.

Differential DNA methylation and metabolite profiling of Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) from the New Bedford Harbor Superfund site.

Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) is a valuable model in evolutionary toxicology to study how the interactions between genetic and environmental factors serve the adaptive ability of organisms to resist chemical pollution. Killifish populations inhabiting environmental toxicant-contaminated New Bedford Harbor (NBH) show phenotypes tolerant to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and differences at the transcriptional and genomic levels. However, limited research has explored epigenetic alterations and metabolic effects in NBH killifish. To identify the involvement of epigenetic and metabolic regulation in the adaptive response of killifish, we investigated tissue- and sex-specific differences in global DNA methylation and metabolomic profiles of NBH killifish populations, compared to sensitive populations from a non-polluted site, Scorton Creek (SC). The results revealed that liver-specific global DNA hypomethylation and differential metabolites were evident in fish from NBH compared with those from SC. The sex-specific differences were not greater than the tissue-specific differences. We demonstrated liver-specific enriched metabolic pathways (e.g., amino acid metabolic pathways converged into the urea cycle and glutathione metabolism), suggesting possible crosstalk between differential metabolites and DNA hypomethylation in the livers of NBH killifish. Additional investigation of methylated gene regions is necessary to understand the functional role of DNA hypomethylation in the regulation of enzyme-encoding genes associated with metabolic processes and physiological changes in NBH populations.

Chronic effects of metal releases from historical mining on threatened crayfish in Madison County Missouri, USA.

The Little St. Francis River and its tributaries drain metals-contaminated areas of the Madison County Mines National Priority List Superfund site (MCM) which was designated in 2003 to facilitate remediation of metals contamination within the MCM. One concern for natural resource trustees in the MCM is the potential effects of elevated metals concentrations on the federally threatened St. Francis River crayfish, Faxonius quadruncus, which has a geographic range that is limited to the St. Francis River watershed. A survey of riffle-dwelling crayfish, in-situ cage study, and laboratory toxicity tests were conducted to assess the effects of mining-derived metals on F. quadruncus and other crayfish species in the MCM. Crayfish densities were significantly greater at sites upstream of metals releases from historical mining (henceforth mining releases) compared to densities at sites downstream of mining releases, and metals concentrations in whole-body crayfish, surface water, sediments, macroinvertebrates, fish, and plant material were greater at sites downstream of mining releases compared to sites upstream of mining releases. Crayfish densities were also negatively correlated with consensus-based adverse effects indices, expressed as surface-water toxic units and sediment probable effects quotients. Decreased growth and increased mortality during cage and laboratory studies were likely due to exposure to, and subsequently uptake of, elevated concentrations of metals. Crayfish in all studies were found to bioaccumulate metals, which supports their utility as bioindicators of metals contamination. Study results show that elevated metals concentrations associated with mining releases in the MCM continue to adversely affect biota, including the federally threatened F. quadruncus.

Passive Sampling-Based versus Conventional-Based Metrics for Evaluating Remediation Efficacy at Contaminated Sediment Sites: A Review.

Passive sampling devices (PSDs) are increasingly used at contaminated sites to improve the characterization of contaminant transport and assessment of ecological and human health risk at sediment sites and to evaluate the effectiveness of remedial actions. The use of PSDs after full-scale remediation remains limited, however, in favor of evaluation based on conventional metrics, such as bulk sediment concentrations or bioaccumulation. This review has three overall aims: (1) identify sites where PSDs have been used to support cleanup efforts, (2) assess how PSD-derived remedial end points compare to conventional metrics, and (3) perform broad semiquantitative and selective quantitative concurrence analyses to evaluate the magnitude of agreement between metrics. Contaminated sediment remedies evaluated included capping, in situ amendment, dredging and monitored natural recovery (MNR). We identify and discuss 102 sites globally where PSDs were used to determine remedial efficacy resulting in over 130 peer-reviewed scientific publications and numerous technical reports and conference proceedings. The most common conventional metrics assessed alongside PSDs in the peer-reviewed literature were bioaccumulation (39%), bulk sediments (40%), toxicity (14%), porewater grab samples (16%), and water column grab samples (16%), while about 25% of studies used PSDs as the sole metric. In a semiquantitative concurrence analysis, the PSD-based metrics agreed with conventional metrics in about 68% of remedy assessments. A more quantitative analysis of reductions in bioaccumulation after remediation (i.e., remediation was successful) showed that decreases in uptake into PSDs agreed with decreases in bioaccumulation (within a factor of 2) 61% of the time. Given the relatively good agreement between conventional and PSD-based metrics, we propose several practices and areas for further study to enhance the utilization of PSDs throughout the remediation of contaminated sediment sites.

Addressing systemic problems with exposure assessments to protect the public's health.

BACKGROUND: Understanding, characterizing, and quantifying human exposures to environmental chemicals is critical to protect public health. Exposure assessments are key to determining risks to the general population and for specific subpopulations given that exposures differ between groups. Exposure data are also important for understanding where interventions, including public policies, should be targeted and the extent to which interventions have been successful. In this review, we aim to show how inadequacies in exposure assessments conducted by polluting industries or regulatory agencies have led to downplaying or disregarding exposure concerns raised by communities; that underestimates of exposure can lead regulatory agencies to conclude that unacceptable risks are, instead, acceptable, allowing pollutants to go unregulated; and that researchers, risk assessors, and policy makers need to better understand the issues that have affected exposure assessments and how appropriate use of exposure data can contribute to health-protective decisions. METHODS: We describe current approaches used by regulatory agencies to estimate human exposures to environmental chemicals, including approaches to address limitations in exposure data. We then illustrate how some exposure assessments have been used to reach flawed conclusions about environmental chemicals and make recommendations for improvements. RESULTS: Exposure data are important for communities, public health advocates, scientists, policy makers, and other groups to understand the extent of environmental exposures in diverse populations. We identify four areas where exposure assessments need to be improved due to systemic sources of error or uncertainty in exposure assessments and illustrate these areas with examples. These include: (1) an inability of regulatory agencies to keep pace with the increasing number of chemicals registered for use or assess their exposures, as well as complications added by use of 'confidential business information' which reduce available exposure data; (2) the failure to keep assessments up-to-date; (3) how inadequate assumptions about human behaviors and co-exposures contribute to underestimates of exposure; and (4) that insufficient models of toxicokinetics similarly affect exposure estimates. CONCLUSION: We identified key issues that impact capacity to conduct scientifically robust exposure assessments. These issues must be addressed with scientific or policy approaches to improve estimates of exposure and protect public health.

Stigma as a multispatial-scale process: Revisiting the worst US Superfund sites.

Areas immediately adjacent to 16 of the first US national priority (NPL) hazardous waste sites that also had pre-superfund emergency actions were examined to measure local stigma. Four decades after their NPL designation, I found marked variation in these areas' social, public health and environmental attributes. About one-third of these small areas fit the stereotype of stressed areas with environmental injustice challenges. Yet, another one-third of these sites have better measurable outcomes than a combination of their host states and counties. For example, they have elevated levels of broadband access and their local jurisdictions are classified as safe and attractive to families. I conclude that long-term stigma around a Superfund site was limited by US EPA actions, as well as by progressive state and local governments, and community groups, in other words, contributions from parties at multiple geographical scales.

Cadmium exposure is associated with chronic kidney disease in a superfund site lead smelter community in Dallas, Texas.

Background: The study was conducted in a Dallas lead smelter community following an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Superfund Cleanup project. Lead smelters operated in the Dallas community since the mid-1930s.Aim: To test the hypothesis that cadmium (Cd) exposure is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) ≥ stage 3.Subjects and methods: Subjects were African American residents aged ≥19 to ≤ 89 years (n=835). CKD ≥ stage 3 was predicted by blood Cd concentration with covariates.Results: In logistic regression analysis, CKD ≥ stage 3 was predicted by age ≥ 50 years (OR = 4.41, p < 0.0001), Cd level (OR = 1.89, p < .05), hypertension (OR = 3.15, p < 0.03), decades living in the community (OR = 1.34, p < 0.003) and T2DM (OR = 2.51, p < 0.01). Meta-analysis of 11 studies of Cd and CKD ≥ stage 3 yielded an ORRANDOM of 1.40 (p < 0.0001). Chronic environmental Cd exposure is associated with CKD ≥ stage 3 in a Dallas lead smelter community controlling covariates.Conclusion: Public health implications include screening for heavy metals including Cd, cleanup efforts to remove Cd from the environment and treating CKD with newer renal-sparing medications (e.g., SGLT-2 inhibitors, GLP-1s).

If coordination of remediation and restoration under CERCLA is such a good idea, why is it not practiced more widely?

Decades of practice have demonstrated favorable outcomes when restoration is considered early in the remedial process, especially when parties have an opportunity to avoid litigation over natural resource damage (NRD) claims. However, these two separate processes are most often done sequentially - with clean up decisions for contaminated sites made during the remedial investigation and feasibility study process and restoration of injured resources during a subsequent natural resource damage assessment. Coordinating these processes offers many advantages for remediating and restoring hazardous waste sites. In this paper, we illustrate why this is true, and explore reasons why it is not practiced more universally. Coordination can generate savings by reducing the amount of time and money required to address natural resource damage claims and build trust among stakeholders. Yet, there are barriers to coordination, such as uncertainty over the benefits that restoration will generate, or the potential risk that undertaking coordination could be viewed as admitting to liability for harm to natural resources. Existing federal statutes also can be an obstacle because they bifurcate remediation and restoration. The economic, legal and policy issues relevant to the integration of remediation and restoration were examined, and how they might be used to encourage early coordination. Habitat equivalency analysis was used to illustrate the tangible natural resource service gains that can be achieved when the processes are coordinated. Selected site-specific examples were drawn upon where coordination occurred and documented. This information was augmented with the results of a survey of companies about their experience with coordination. Finally, we discuss the potential policy and legal approaches that might help bring remediation and restoration together and result in improved practices nationwide, and thereby provide benefits to industrial parties, government, and affected communities alike.

Broadening Benefits and Anticipating Tradeoffs with a Proposed Ecosystem Service Analysis Framework for the US Army Corps of Engineers.

Would-be adopters of ecosystem service analysis frameworks might ask, 'Do such frameworks improve ecosystem service provision or social benefits sufficiently to compensate for any extra effort?' Here we explore that question by retrospectively applying an ecosystem goods and services (EGS) analysis framework to a large river restoration case study conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and comparing potential time costs and outcomes of traditional versus EGS-informed planning. USACE analytic methods can have a large influence on which river and wetland restoration projects are implemented in the United States because they affect which projects or project elements are eligible for federal cost-share funding. A new framework is designed for the USACE and is primarily distinguished from current procedures by adding explicit steps to document and compare tradeoffs and complementarity among all affected EGS, rather than the subset that falls within project purposes. Further, it applies economic concepts to transform ecological performance indicators into social benefit indicators, even if changes cannot be valued. We conclude that, for large multi-partner restoration projects like our case study, using the framework provides novel information on social outcomes that could be used to enhance project design, without substantially increasing scoping costs. The primary benefits of using the framework in the case study appeared to stem from early comprehensive identification of stakeholder interests that might have prevented project delays late in the process, and improving the communication of social benefits and how tradeoffs among EGS benefits were weighed during planning.

Source apportionment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the sediments of an urban estuary.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the sediments of aquatic systems are a persistent global problem that poses serious health risks. Identifying the sources of dioxins in natural water systems and the extent of their contributions to observed sediment concentrations is important from a health advisory and mitigation perspective. This paper proposes novel distribution-based qualitative and quantitative methods as source apportionment techniques and alternatives to conventional source attribution methods. Using sampled data, air, runoff, industrial effluent, and industrial paper and pulp wastes were identified as four distinct dioxin contributors to concentrations found in the sediments of the test bed region: the Houston Ship Channel-San Jacinto River-Galveston Bay (HSC-SJR-GB) estuarine system that also includes 2 Superfund sites with dioxin contamination. Two qualitative methods, the Kullback-Leibler divergence (K-L divergence) and the Bhattacharya measure (BM), and a quantitative method, the L2 norm, were used to investigate the spatial and temporal sourcing patterns of dioxins in the system sediments. The results indicated a global contribution from air and runoff sources across the estuarine system and over time with more localized impacts of the Superfund sites and the industrial sources. The results using the developed methodologies were compared with the output from the more conventional positive matrix factorization (PMF) method. Statistically significant correlations were observed among source contributions from the proposed methods and the PMF method, with Spearman's ρ ranging between - 0.596 to - 0.963 and 0.652 to 0.719, demonstrating the utility of the sourcing approaches used in the study. Additionally, the proposed methods were found to be rigorous in terms of elucidating spatial and temporal changes in the sourcing of dioxin to the estuary, indicating their suitability for use for other contaminants and other estuarine systems.

Enhancing Data Integration, Interoperability, and Reuse to Address Complex and Emerging Environmental Health Problems.

Environmental health sciences (EHS) span many diverse disciplines. Within the EHS community, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Superfund Research Program (SRP) funds multidisciplinary research aimed to address pressing and complex issues on how people are exposed to hazardous substances and their related health consequences with the goal of identifying strategies to reduce exposures and protect human health. While disentangling the interrelationships that contribute to environmental exposures and their effects on human health over the course of life remains difficult, advances in data science and data sharing offer a path forward to explore data across disciplines to reveal new insights. Multidisciplinary SRP-funded teams are well-positioned to examine how to best integrate EHS data across diverse research domains to address multifaceted environmental health problems. As such, SRP supported collaborative research projects designed to foster and enhance the interoperability and reuse of diverse and complex data streams. This perspective synthesizes those experiences as a landscape view of the challenges identified while working to increase the FAIR-ness (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) of EHS data and opportunities to address them.

Superfund cleanup time and community characteristics: A survival analysis.

This paper investigates the correlation of socioeconomic characteristics of communities close to Superfund sites with the duration of cleanup using spatial survival analysis with frailty effects. Census-tract-level data is used to achieve a more accurate representation of affected areas. We find evidence of slower cleanup in areas with higher minority population, particularly when controlling for EPA Region. Additionally, sites that are more costly, have high assessed hazards, and have a Community Action Group are associated with longer cleanup times, while sites which are federally owned and have low assessed hazards are associated with shorter cleanup times.

A pilot study that provides evidence of epigenetic changes among mother-child pairs living proximal to mining in the US.

Environmental exposures to chemicals can disrupt gene expression, and the effects could be mediated by methylation. This investigation focused on methylation of genes associated with exposure to metals. Mother-child pairs from three locations in Montana were recruited, and buccal cells were collected for genome-wide methylation assay. Four pairs were from Butte, where there is mining and a Superfund site, four pairs were from Anaconda with a Superfund site, and four pairs were from Missoula with neither a mine nor a Superfund site. Principal component analysis, linear mixed models, hierarchical clustering and heatmap, and gene set enrichment analysis were used to visualize the profiles, identify the top associated methylation loci, and investigate the involved pathways. Distinctly higher or lower methylation in samples from Butte were found at the top differentially methylated loci. The 200 genes harboring the most hypermethylated loci were significantly enriched in genes involved in actin cytoskeleton regulation, ABC transporters, leukocyte transendothelial migration, focal adhesion, and adherens junction, which plays a role in pathogenesis of disease, including autism spectrum disorders. This study lays a foundation for inquiry about genetic changes associated with environmental exposure to metals for people living in proximity to Superfund and open pit mining.

Highly contaminated river otters (Lontra canadensis) are effective biomonitors of environmental pollutant exposure.

River otters (Lontra canadensis) are apex predators that bioaccumulate contaminants via their diet, potentially serving as biomonitors of watershed health. They reside throughout the Green-Duwamish River, WA (USA), a watershed encompassing an extreme urbanization gradient, including a US Superfund site slated for a 17-year remediation. The objectives of this study were to document baseline contaminant levels in river otters, assess otters' utility as top trophic-level biomonitors of contaminant exposure, and evaluate the potential for health impacts on this species. We measured a suite of contaminants of concern, lipid content, nitrogen stable isotopes (δ15N), and microsatellite DNA markers in 69 otter scat samples collected from twelve sites. Landcover characteristics were used to group sampling sites into industrial (Superfund site), suburban, and rural development zones. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ether flame-retardants (PBDEs), dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) increased significantly with increasing urbanization, and were best predicted by models that included development zone, suggesting that river otters are effective biomonitors, as defined in this study. Diet also played an important role, with lipid content, δ15N or both included in all best models. We recommend river otter scat be included in evaluating restoration efforts in this Superfund site, and as a potentially useful monitoring tool wherever otters are found. We also report ΣPCB and ΣPAH exposures among the highest published for wild river otters, with almost 70% of samples in the Superfund site exceeding established levels of concern.

Engaging students in planning for superfund site remediation and redevelopment.

Communities with contaminated lands are also often the most vulnerable to the impacts of a changing climate such as sea-level rise, increased temperatures, and extreme storms and hurricanes due to socio-economic and historic reasons - some of the very factors that enable the creation of these contaminated sites in these communities. In spite of, and arguably because of, this double exposure and impact, the ability of these communities to clean up and reuse their contaminated lands has not kept up with their need. Researchers have often attributed this discrepancy to a lack of technical capacity and human resource. To address this lack, since January 2018, students enrolled in planning-related courses offered by the University of West Florida Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences have engaged with stakeholders on the redevelopment of superfund sites located in Pensacola, FL under the auspices of the USEPA's College Underserved Community Partnership Program. The engagement centered on the reuse of two of these superfund sites for the betterment of the stakeholders' socio-economies and their biophysical environments. I focus in this paper on four examples of engaging with students in planning for superfund site remediation and redevelopment. The examples are of engaging with county staff; collaboratively engaging with city staff and a private firm; engaging with county commissioners; and engaging with a private firm between two superfund sites over the course of one year. I highlight the contextual, unique needs, of each stakeholder group yet emphasize the applicable lessons across all four examples. I also focus on best practices to develop plans and outlines for mutually beneficial products and outcomes for both students and stakeholder groups in the process of land revitalization.

Environmental, public health, and economic development perspectives at a Superfund site: A Q methodology approach.

Environmental remediation and restoration at hazardous waste sites is important for reducing risks and sustaining local economies. Navigating trade-offs between diverse and conflicting stakeholder perspectives to identify practical and affordable ways forward is important for sustaining objectives and goals. Differences in stakeholder perspectives are informed by their affiliations and roles and their views towards environmental, economic development, and public health issues. We used Q methodology, an approach that combines priority sorting and interviews, to elicit and interpret the perspectives of 28 stakeholders, representing government entities, non-profits, and industries at a mining-impacted Superfund site in the Coeur d'Alene Basin of Idaho, USA. Four primary perspectives were distinguished by their prioritization of: 1) government intervention, 2) the Superfund remediation, 3) local concerns, and 4) public-private partnerships. Participants' roles and affiliations played an influential role in informing primary perspectives. Overall, collaboration was viewed more favorably when it was associated with concrete implementation pathways.

National Hazards Vulnerability and the Remediation, Restoration and Revitalization of Contaminated Sites-1. Superfund.

Natural hazards can be prominent and powerful mechanisms that impact the remediation and restoration of contaminated sites and the revitalization of communities associated with these sites. The potential for hazardous material releases following a natural disaster can exacerbate the impact of contaminated sites by causing the release of toxic or hazardous materials and inhibiting the restoration of the site as well as altering the long-term sustainable revitalization of adjacent communities. Disaster-related hazardous releases, particularly in population-dense areas, can create problems as difficult as the original site clean-up. Similarly, exposure of contaminated sites to natural hazards can enhance the probability of future issues associated with the site. This manuscript addresses the co-occurrence of 12 natural hazards (singly and in combination) and individual Superfund sites.

The Ramapough Lunaape Nation: Facing Health Impacts Associated with Proximity to a Superfund Site.

This study aimed to evaluate self-reported exposure to the Ringwood Mines/Landfill Superfund Site in relation to chronic health outcomes among members of the Ramapough Lunaape Turtle Clan nation and other local residents of Ringwood, New Jersey. Community surveys on personal exposure to the nearby Superfund site, self-reported health conditions, and demographics were conducted with 187 members of the Ramapough Lunaape Turtle Clan Nation and non-Native Americans residing in Ringwood, New Jersey from December 2015 to October 2016. Multiple logistic regression was performed to assess the association between ethnicity and a Superfund site exposure score developed for this study, as well as between exposure score and several chronic health conditions. Native Americans were 13.84 times (OR 13.84; 95% CI 4.32, 44.37) more likely to face exposure opportunities to Superfund sites as compared to non-Native Americans in the same New Jersey borough. For the entire surveyed cohort, increased Superfund site exposure routes was significantly associated with bronchitis (OR 4.10; 95% CI 1.18, 14.23). When the analyses were restricted to Native Americans, the association between self-reported Superfund site exposure and bronchitis remained significant (OR 17.42; 95% CI 1.99, 152.45). Moreover, the association between greater exposure score and asthma in this same population also reached statistical significance (OR 6.16; 95% CI 1.38, 27.49). This pilot study demonstrated a significant association between being a Ringwood resident of Native American ethnicity and self-declared opportunities for Superfund site exposure. It also showed a strong association between self-reported Superfund site exposure and the prevalence of bronchitis and asthma.

Characterizing cesium sorption in freshwater settings using fluvial sediments and characteristic water chemistries.

Cesium-137 (137Cs) is a persistent contaminant that poses a significant risk to human health and the environment. Understanding the fate and transport of 137Cs following a contamination incident is necessary for effective containment and remediation. In this study, we performed experiments to investigate how Cs+ sorption processes are affected by sediment type and varying water chemistries to better understand how Cs+ is transported in freshwater settings. Sediment was collected from various river deposits along the Susquehanna River adjacent to the Safety Light Corporation United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Superfund site (Bloomsburg, PA) and characterized prior to being used in batch reactor experiments with waters characteristic of different regions in the US (Central US and Northeast US) and with three different cation types (Mg2+, Na+, and K+) over a range of ionic strengths. Greater amounts of Cs+ sorption occurred with increasing sediment mud (silt and clay) content, although no major differences in sorption between the Central and Northeast US water types were observed. At an ionic strength (I) of 10 mM, K+ inhibited Cs+ sorption most effectively, followed by Mg2+, with Na+ having little effect on Cs+ sorption over the range of ionic strengths tested (I = 0.1, 1, and 10 mM). Our findings indicate that for the representative freshwater conditions tested here, sediment type (e.g., clay fraction) has a greater influence on Cs+ sorption processes than water chemistry. Additional reactions or processes occurring in relatively fresh water could buffer cation competition for sorption sites. Conducting experiments using site-specific sediment samples and water chemistries is useful for predicting Cs+ sorption and mobility in distinct environmental settings, particularly when the level of Cs+ contamination is high and if the waste or contaminated (or receiving) waters have a relatively high ionic strength.

Environmental health perceptions in a superfund community.

A disconnect between community perceptions and officially documented Superfund remedial actions and health outcomes may hinder the essential community engagement at Superfund sites. This study evaluates the extent of one such potential disconnect in Butte, Montana, which is part of the largest U.S. Superfund site in the U.S. Since the 1860s, when mining began in Butte, mine waste disposal practices in Butte and surrounding areas have left behind massive deposits that have contaminated the area's soil, sediment, groundwater and surface water with arsenic and heavy metals. Over the last four decades, a substantial amount of remediation work has been completed along with requisite community engagement and health studies at this Superfund site. The potential disconnect was evaluated using a new survey instrument that covered: (a) general environmental health perceptions, (b) mine-waste specific environmental health perceptions, (c) effectiveness of community engagement, (d) knowledge of health outcomes, and (e) demographics. The survey results demonstrated a disconnect in many instances where objective remedial improvements may not have resulted in improved environmental health perceptions in the community. The disconnect was most pronounced in the case of drinking water protection from mine waste and knowledge of health outcomes (cancer incidence rates and children's blood levels). The use of similar environmental health perception measurements may aid responsible agencies in monitoring for and addressing environmental health perception disconnects through better community engagement for the benefit of the impacted communities.