Risk tolerance as a complementary concept to risk perception of natural hazards: A conceptual review and application.

There is a longstanding assumption that if people perceive a risk as high, they will act to reduce it. In fact, research has shown a lack of consistently strong causal relations between risk perception (RP) and mitigative behavior-the so-called "risk perception paradox." Despite a recent increase in research on RP, individuals' risk tolerance (RT; or demand for risk reduction) only rarely appears as a consideration for explaining behavioral response to natural hazards. To address this research gap, we first systematically review relevant literature and find that RT has been directly assessed or operationalized using perceived thresholds related to costs and benefits of risk reduction measures, risk consequences, hazard characteristics, behavioral responses, or affective reactions. It is either considered a component or a result of RP. We then use survey data of individuals' RP, RT, and behavioral intention to assess relations among these variables. Comparing across three European study sites, "behavioral intention" is assessed as the public's willingness to actively support the implementation of nature-based solutions to reduce disaster risk. A series of tests using regression models shows RT significantly explains variance in behavioral intention and significantly contributes additional explanatory power beyond RP in all three sites. In two sites, RT is also a significant partial mediator of the relation between RP and behavior. Taken together, our findings demand further conceptual and empirical research on individuals' RT and its systematic consideration as a determinant for (in)action in response to natural hazards.

Dissociating representations of affect and motion in visual cortices.

While a delicious dessert being presented to us may elicit strong feelings of happiness and excitement, the same treat falling slowly away can lead to sadness and disappointment. Our emotional response to the item depends on its visual motion direction. Despite this importance, it remains unclear whether (and how) cortical areas devoted to decoding motion direction represents or integrates emotion with perceived motion direction. Motion-selective visual area V5/MT+ sits, both functionally and anatomically, at the nexus of dorsal and ventral visual streams. These pathways, however, differ in how they are modulated by emotional cues. The current study was designed to disentangle how emotion and motion perception interact, as well as use emotion-dependent modulation of visual cortices to understand the relation of V5/MT+ to canonical processing streams. During functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), approaching, receding, or static motion after-effects (MAEs) were induced on stationary positive, negative, and neutral stimuli. An independent localizer scan was conducted to identify the visual-motion area V5/MT+. Through univariate and multivariate analyses, we demonstrated that emotion representations in V5/MT+ share a more similar response profile to that observed in ventral visual than dorsal, visual structures. Specifically, V5/MT+ and ventral structures were sensitive to the emotional content of visual stimuli, whereas dorsal visual structures were not. Overall, this work highlights the critical role of V5/MT+ in the representation and processing of visually acquired emotional content. It further suggests a role for this region in utilizing affectively salient visual information to augment motion perception of biologically relevant stimuli.

Assessing the likely effectiveness of multispecies management for imperiled desert fishes with niche overlap analysis.

A critical decision in species conservation is whether to target individual species or a complex of ecologically similar species. Management of multispecies complexes is likely to be most effective when species share similar distributions, threats, and response to threats. We used niche overlap analysis to assess ecological similarity of 3 sensitive desert fish species currently managed as an ecological complex. We measured the amount of shared distribution of multiple habitat and life history parameters between each pair of species. Habitat use and multiple life history parameters, including maximum body length, spawning temperature, and longevity, differed significantly among the 3 species. The differences in habitat use and life history parameters among the species suggest they are likely to respond differently to similar threats and that most management actions will not benefit all 3 species equally. Habitat restoration, frequency of stream dewatering, non-native species control, and management efforts in tributaries versus main stem rivers are all likely to impact each of the species differently. Our results demonstrate that niche overlap analysis provides a powerful tool for assessing the likely effectiveness of multispecies versus single-species conservation plans.

Una decisión crítica en la conservación de especies es si uno se debe enfocar en especies individuales o en un complejo de especies similares ecológicamente. El manejo de complejos multi-especie suele ser más efectivo cuando las especies comparten amenazas, respuestas a las amenazas y distribuciones similares. Usamos el análisis de traslape de nichos para evaluar la similitud ecológica de tres especies sensibles de peces de desierto que se manejan actualmente como un complejo ecológico. Medimos la cantidad de distribución compartida del hábitat múltiple y los parámetros de historia de vida entre cada par de especies. El uso de hábitat y muchos parámetros de historia de vida, incluyendo la longitud máxima del cuerpo, la temperatura de desove y la longevidad, difirieron significativamente entre las tres especies. Las diferencias en el uso de hábitat y los parámetros de historia de vida entre las especies sugiere que probablemente respondan de manera diferente a amenazas similares y que la mayoría de las acciones de manejo no beneficiarán equitativamente a las tres especies. Tanto la restauración del hábitat como la frecuencia con la que se le retira agua a los arroyos, el control de especies no-nativas y los esfuerzos de manejo en los cuerpos de agua tributarios contra los esfuerzos en los ríos principales, tienen la probabilidad de impactar de distintas formas a cada una de las especies. Nuestros resultados demuestran que el análisis de traslape de nichos proporciona una herramienta poderosa para evaluar la posible efectividad de los planes de conservación multi-especie en contraste con los de especie individual.

Responding to threat: Associations between neural reactivity to and behavioral avoidance of threat in pediatric anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Despite broad recognition of the central role of avoidance in anxiety, a lack of specificity in its operationalization has hindered progress in understanding this clinically significant construct. The current study uses a multimodal approach to investigate how specific measures of avoidance relate to neural reactivity to threat in youth with anxiety disorders. METHODS: Children with anxiety disorders (ages 6-12 years; n = 65 for primary analyses) completed laboratory task- and clinician-based measures of avoidance, as well as a functional magnetic resonance imaging task probing neural reactivity to threat. Primary analyses examined the ventral anterior insula (vAI), amygdala, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). RESULTS: Significant but distinct patterns of association with task- versus clinician-based measures of avoidance emerged. Clinician-rated avoidance was negatively associated with right and left vAI reactivity to threat, whereas laboratory-based avoidance was positively associated with right vAI reactivity to threat. Moreover, left vAI-right amygdala and bilateral vmPFC-right amygdala functional connectivity were negatively associated with clinician-rated avoidance but not laboratory-based avoidance. LIMITATIONS: These results should be considered in the context of the restricted range of our treatment-seeking sample, which limits the ability to draw conclusions about these associations across children with a broader range of symptomatology. In addition, the limited racial and ethnic diversity of our sample may limit the generalizability of findings. CONCLUSION: These findings mark an important step towards bridging neural findings and behavioral patterns using a multimodal approach. Advancing understanding of behavioral avoidance in pediatric anxiety may guide future treatment optimization by identifying individual-specific targets for treatment.

Social Synchronization of Conditioned Fear in Mice Requires Ventral Hippocampus Input to the Amygdala.

BACKGROUND: Social organisms synchronize behaviors as an evolutionary-conserved means of thriving. Synchronization under threat, in particular, benefits survival and occurs across species, including humans, but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown because of the scarcity of relevant animal models. Here, we developed a rodent paradigm in which mice synchronized a classically conditioned fear response and identified an underlying neuronal circuit. METHODS: Male and female mice were trained individually using auditory fear conditioning and then tested 24 hours later as dyads while allowing unrestricted social interaction during exposure to the conditioned stimulus under visible or infrared illumination to eliminate visual cues. The synchronization of the immobility or freezing bouts was quantified by calculating the effect size Cohen's d for the difference between the actual freezing time overlap and the overlap by chance. The inactivation of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, dorsal hippocampus, or ventral hippocampus was achieved by local infusions of muscimol. The chemogenetic disconnection of the hippocampus-amygdala pathway was performed by expressing hM4D(Gi) in the ventral hippocampal neurons and infusing clozapine N-oxide in the amygdala. RESULTS: Mice synchronized cued but not contextual fear. It was higher in males than in females and attenuated in the absence of visible light. Inactivation of the ventral but not dorsal hippocampus or dorsomedial prefrontal cortex abolished fear synchronization. Finally, the disconnection of the hippocampus-amygdala pathway diminished fear synchronization. CONCLUSIONS: Mice synchronize expression of conditioned fear relying on the ventral hippocampus-amygdala pathway, suggesting that the hippocampus transmits social information to the amygdala to synchronize threat response.

Activation of Parabrachial Tachykinin 1 Neurons Counteracts Some Behaviors Mediated by Parabrachial Calcitonin Gene-related Peptide Neurons.

Many threats activate parabrachial neurons expressing calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRPPBN) which transmit alarm signals to forebrain regions. Most CGRPPBN neurons also express tachykinin 1 (Tac1), but there are also Tac1-expressing neurons in the PBN that do not express CGRP (Tac1+;CGRP- neurons). Chemogenetic or optogenetic activation of all Tac1PBN neurons in mice elicited many physiological/behavioral responses resembling the activation of CGRPPBN neurons, e.g., anorexia, jumping on a hot plate, avoidance of photostimulation; however, two key responses opposed activation of CGRPPBN neurons. Activating Tac1PBN neurons did not produce conditioned taste aversion and it elicited dynamic escape behaviors rather than freezing. Activating Tac1+;CGRP- neurons, using an intersectional genetic targeting approach, resembles activating all Tac1PBN neurons. These results reveal that activation of Tac1+;CGRP- neurons can suppress some functions attributed to the CGRPPBN neurons, which provides a mechanism to bias behavioral responses to threats.

Novel predator-induced phenotypic plasticity by hemoglobin and physiological changes in the brain of Xenopus tropicalis.

Organisms adapt to changes in their environment to survive. The emergence of predators is an example of environmental change, and organisms try to change their external phenotypic systems and physiological mechanisms to adapt to such changes. In general, prey exhibit different phenotypes to predators owing to historically long-term prey-predator interactions. However, when presented with a novel predator, the extent and rate of phenotypic plasticity in prey are largely unknown. Therefore, exploring the physiological adaptive response of organisms to novel predators is a crucial topic in physiology and evolutionary biology. Counterintuitively, Xenopus tropicalis tadpoles do not exhibit distinct external phenotypes when exposed to new predation threats. Accordingly, we examined the brains of X. tropicalis tadpoles to understand their response to novel predation pressure in the absence of apparent external morphological adaptations. Principal component analysis of fifteen external morphological parameters showed that each external morphological site varied nonlinearly with predator exposure time. However, the overall percentage change in principal components during the predation threat (24 h) was shown to significantly (p < 0.05) alter tadpole morphology compared with that during control or 5-day out treatment (5 days of exposure to predation followed by 5 days of no exposure). However, the adaptive strategy of the altered sites was unknown because the changes were not specific to a particular site but were rather nonlinear in various sites. Therefore, RNA-seq, metabolomic, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses were performed on the entire brain to investigate physiological changes in the brain, finding that glycolysis-driven ATP production was enhanced and ß-oxidation and the tricarboxylic acid cycle were downregulated in response to predation stress. Superoxide dismutase was upregulated after 6 h of exposure to new predation pressure, and radical production was reduced. Hemoglobin was also increased in the brain, forming oxyhemoglobin, which is known to scavenge hydroxyl radicals in the midbrain and hindbrain. These suggest that X. tropicalis tadpoles do not develop external morphological adaptations that are positively correlated with predation pressure, such as tail elongation, in response to novel predators; however, they improve their brain functionality when exposed to a novel predator.

Lateralization of autonomic output in response to limb-specific threat.

In times of stress or danger, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) signals the fight or flight response. A canonical function of ANS activity is to globally mobilize metabolic resources, preparing the organism to respond to threat. Yet a body of research has demonstrated that, rather than displaying a homogenous pattern across the body, autonomic responses to arousing events - as measured through changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) - can differ between right and left body locations. Surprisingly, an attempt to identify a function of ANS asymmetry consistent with its metabolic role has not been investigated. In the current study, we investigated whether asymmetric autonomic responses could be induced through limb-specific aversive stimulation. Participants were given mild electric stimulation to either the left or right arm while EDA was monitored bilaterally. In a group-level analyses, an ipsilateral EDA response bias was observed, with increased EDA response in the hand adjacent to the stimulation. This effect was observable in ∼50% of individual particpants. These results demonstrate that autonomic output is more complex than canonical interpretations suggest. We suggest that, in stressful situations, autonomic outputs can prepare either the whole-body fight or flight response, or a simply a limb-localized flick, which can effectively neutralize the threat while minimizing global resource consumption. These findings are consistent with recent theories proposing evolutionary leveraging of neural structures organized to mediate sensory responses for processing of cognitive emotional cues.Significance statementThe present study constitutes novel evidence for an autonomic nervous response specific to the side of the body exposed to direct threat. We identify a robust pattern of electrodermal response at the body location that directly receives aversive tactile stimulation. Thus, we demonstrate for the first time in contemporary research that the ANS is capable of location-specific outputs within single effector organs in response to small scale threat. This extends the canonical view of the role of ANS responses in stressful or dangerous stresses - that of provoking a 'fight or flight' response - suggesting a further role of this system: preparation of targeted limb-specific action, i.e., a flick.

The modulation of emotional and social behaviors by oxytocin signaling in limbic network.

Neuropeptides can exert volume modulation in neuronal networks, which account for a well-calibrated and fine-tuned regulation that depends on the sensory and behavioral contexts. For example, oxytocin (OT) and oxytocin receptor (OTR) trigger a signaling pattern encompassing intracellular cascades, synaptic plasticity, gene expression, and network regulation, that together function to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for sensory-dependent stress/threat and social responses. Activation of OTRs in emotional circuits within the limbic forebrain is necessary to acquire stress/threat responses. When emotional memories are retrieved, OTR-expressing cells act as gatekeepers of the threat response choice/discrimination. OT signaling has also been implicated in modulating social-exposure elicited responses in the neural circuits within the limbic forebrain. In this review, we describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the neuromodulation by OT, and how OT signaling in specific neural circuits and cell populations mediate stress/threat and social behaviors. OT and downstream signaling cascades are heavily implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by emotional and social dysregulation. Thus, a mechanistic understanding of downstream cellular effects of OT in relevant cell types and neural circuits can help design effective intervention techniques for a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Neurofunctional abnormalities in antisocial spectrum: A meta-analysis of fMRI studies on Five distinct neurocognitive research domains.

Past functional magnetic resonance imaging on antisocial subjects have shown important inconsistencies and methodological problems (e.g. heterogeneity in fMRI tasks domain, small sample sizes, analyses on regions-of-interest). We aimed to conduct a meta-analysis of whole-brain fMRI studies on antisocial individuals based on distinct neurocognitive domains. A voxel-based meta-analysis via permutation of subject images (SDM-PSI) was performed on studies using fMRI tasks in the domains of acute threat response, cognitive control, social cognition, punishment and reward processing. Overall, 83 studies were retrieved. Using a liberal statistical threshold, several key regions were identified in the meta-analysis, principally during acute threat response, social cognition and cognitive control tasks. Additionally, we observed that the right amygdala was negatively associated with both callous-unemotional traits and severity of antisocial behaviors, in meta-analyses on region-of-interest and on dimensional studies, respectively. The findings show that the most prominent functional brain deficits arise during acute threat response, social cognitions and cognitive control neurocognitive domains. These results provide substantial insights for our understanding of aberrant neural processing across specific contexts.

Stress and Feline Health.

In the health sciences, stress often is defined in terms of stressors; events that are perceived as threats to one's perception of control. From this perspective, a stressor is anything that activates the central threat response system (CTRS). Recent research shows that the CTRS can be sensitized to environmental events through epigenetic modulation of gene expression. When CTRS activation is chronic, health and welfare may be harmed. Environmental modification can mitigate the harmful effects of chronic CTRS activation by reducing the individual's perception of threat and increasing its perception of control, which improves health and welfare.

Brain activation during human defensive behaviour: A systematic review and preliminary meta-analysis.

The neural underpinnings of defensive behaviour have implications for both basic research and clinical translation. This review systematically collates published research on neural response during simple avoidance of threat and approach-avoidance behaviour during goal-conflicting situations and presents an exploratory meta-analysis of available whole-brain data. Scopus, PsychInfo and Web of Science databases were searched for the period up to March 2018. 1348 simple avoidance and 1910 goal-conflict publications were initially identified; following review, 8 simple avoidance and 11 goal-conflict studies were included, with 5 datasets used in a preliminary meta-analysis. A move from forebrain-to-midbrain activation as threat becomes more pertinent was noted, indicating support for the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of behaviour and general compatibility with animal work. However, these findings were not reflected in the subsequent preliminary meta-analysis. This review highlights the considerable heterogeneity in currently available defensive behaviour paradigms and the lack of research in clinically relevant populations.

Interoceptive Insular Cortex Mediates Both Innate Fear and Contextual Threat Conditioning to Predator Odor.

The insular cortex (IC), among other brain regions, becomes active when humans experience fear or anxiety. However, few experimental studies in rats have implicated the IC in threat responses. We have recently reported that inactivation of the primary interoceptive cortex (pIC) during pre-training, or the intra-pIC blockade of protein synthesis immediately after training, impaired the consolidation of auditory fear conditioning. The present study was designed to investigate the role of the pIC in innate and learned defensive responses to predator odor. Freezing behavior was elicited by single or repetitive exposures to a collar that had been worn by a domestic cat. Sessions were video-recorded and later scored by video observation. We found that muscimol inactivation of the pIC reduced the expression of freezing reaction in response to a single or repeated exposure to cat odor. We also found that pIC inactivation with muscimol impaired conditioning of fear to the context in which rats were exposed to cat odor. Furthermore, neosaxitoxin inactivation of the pIC resulted in a prolonged and robust reduction in freezing response in subsequent re-exposures to cat odor. In addition, freezing behavior significantly correlated with the neural activity of the IC. The present results suggest that the IC is involved in the expression of both innate and learned fear responses to predator odor.

Chronic Lower Urinary Tract Signs in Cats: Current Understanding of Pathophysiology and Management.

Cats that present with chronic lower urinary tract signs are often diagnosed with feline idiopathic/interstitial cystitis, a disease syndrome that is more than just a bladder disease and can be associated wtih a myriad of other co-morbidities. Further, gaining a better understanding of FIC (including the most accurate descriptive terminology) may help researchers, veterinarians, pet food companies, and clients develop and tailor the best possible approaches to management of these cat's unique health and welfare needs.

Maternal and Embryonic Stress Influence Offspring Behavior in the Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis.

Stress experienced during prenatal development-either applied to reproducing females (maternal stress), directly to developing offspring (embryonic stress) or in combination-is associated with a range of post-natal behavioral effects in numerous organisms. We conducted an experiment to discern if maternal and embryonic stressors affect the behavior of hatchlings of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, a species with features that allow for the examination of these stress types in isolation. Separating the impact of stress transmitted through the mother vs. stress experienced by the embryo itself will help clarify the behavioral findings in viviparous species for which it is impossible to disentangle these effects. We also compared the effect of a naturally-occurring (predator cue) and an "artificial" (bright, randomly-occurring LED light) embryonic stressor. This allowed us to test the hypothesis that a threat commonly faced by a species (natural threat) would be met with a genetically-programmed and adaptive response while a novel one would confound innate defense mechanisms and lead to maladaptive effects. We found that the maternal stressor was associated with significant differences in body patterning and activity patterns. By contrast, embryonic exposure to stressors increased the proportion of individuals that pursued prey. From these results, it appears that in cuttlefish, maternal and embryonic stressors affect different post-natal behavior in offspring. In addition, the effect of the artificial stressor suggests that organisms can sometimes react adaptively to a stressor even if it is not one that has been encountered during the evolutionary history of the species.

Implicit evaluations and physiological threat responses in people with persistent low back pain and fear of bending.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Pain and protective behaviour are dependent on implicit evaluations of danger to the body. However, current assessment of perceived danger relies on self-report, on information of which the person is aware and willing to disclose. To overcome this limitation, attempts have been made to investigate implicit evaluation of movement-related threatening images in people with persistent low back pain (PLBP) and pain-related fear. Lack of specificity of the sample and stimuli limited those explorations. This study investigated implicit evaluations and physiological responses to images of tasks commonly reported as threatening by people with PLBP: bending and lifting. We hypothesized that people who differ in self-reported fear of bending with a flexed lumbar spine (fear of bending) would also differ in implicit evaluations and physiological responses. METHODS: This study used a convenience sample of 44 people (54% female) with PLBP, who differed in self-reported fear of bending. Participants completed a picture-viewing paradigm with pleasant, neutral and unpleasant images, and images of people bending and lifting with a flexed lumbar spine ('round-back') to assess physiological responses (eye-blink startle modulation, skin conductance). They also completed an implicit association test (IAT) and an affective priming task (APT). Both assessed implicit associations between (i) images of people bending/lifting with a flexed lumbar spine posture ('round-back' posture) or bending/lifting with a straight lumbar spine posture ('straight-back' posture), and (ii) perceived threat (safe vs. dangerous). RESULTS: An implicit association between 'danger' and 'round-back' bending/lifting was evident in all participants (IAT (0.5, CI [0.3; 0.6]; p<0.001) and APT (24.2, CI [4.2; 44.3]; p=0.019)), and unrelated to self-reported fear of bending (IAT (r=-0.24, 95% CI [-0.5, 0.04], p=0.117) and APT (r=-0.00, 95% CI [-0.3, 0.3], p=0.985)). Levels of self-reported fear of bending were not associated with eye-blink startle (F(3, 114)=0.7, p=0.548) or skin conductance responses (F(3, 126)=0.4, p=0.780) to pictures of bending/lifting. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to our expectation, self-reported fear of bending was not related to physiological startle response or implicit measures. People with PLBP as a group (irrespective of fear levels) showed an implicit association between images of a round-back bending/lifting posture and danger, but did not display elevated physiological responses to these images. These results provide insight to the understanding of the relationship between pain and fear of movement. IMPLICATIONS: The potential clinical implications of our findings are twofold. First, these results indicate that self-report measures do not always reflect implicit associations between particular movements and threat. Implicit association tasks may help overcome this limitation. Second, a lack of the predicted physiological and behavioural responses may reflect that the visualization of a threatening task by people in pain does not elicit the same physiological defensive responses measured in people with fear of specific objects. It may be necessary to expose the person to the actual movement to elicit threat-responses. Together, these results are consistent with current views of the role of 'fear' in the fear-avoidance model, in which a fear response may only be elicited when the threat is unavoidable.

Diminished amygdala activation and behavioral threat response following traumatic brain injury.

Each year, approximately 3.8 million people suffer mild to moderate traumatic brain injuries (mTBI) that result in an array of neuropsychological symptoms and disorders. Despite these alarming statistics, the neurological bases of these persistent, debilitating neuropsychological symptoms are currently poorly understood. In this study we examined the effects of mTBI on the amygdala, a brain structure known to be critically involved in the processing of emotional stimuli. Seven days after lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI), mice underwent a series of physiological and behavioral experiments to assess amygdala function. Brain-injured mice exhibited a decreased threat response in a cued fear conditioning paradigm, congruent with a decrease in amygdala excitability determined with basolateral amygdala (BLA) field excitatory post-synaptic potentials together with voltage-sensitive dye imaging (VSD). Furthermore, beyond exposing a general decrease in the excitability of the primary input of the amygdala, the lateral amygdala (LA), VSD also revealed a decrease in the relative strength or activation of internuclear amygdala circuit projections after LFPI. Thus, not only does activation of the LA require increased stimulation, but the proportion of this activation that is propagated to the primary output of the amygdala, the central amygdala, is also diminished following LFPI. Intracellular recordings revealed no changes in the intrinsic properties of BLA pyramidal neurons after LFPI. This data suggests that mild to moderate TBI has prominent effects on amygdala function and provides a potential neurological substrate for many of the neuropsychological symptoms suffered by TBI patients.