sRNA-Mediated Control of Transcription Termination in E. coli.

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) have been implicated in various aspects of post-transcriptional gene regulation. Here, we demonstrate that sRNAs also act at the level of transcription termination. We use the rpoS gene, which encodes a general stress sigma factor σ(S), as a model system, and show that sRNAs DsrA, ArcZ, and RprA bind the rpoS 5'UTR to suppress premature Rho-dependent transcription termination, both in vitro and in vivo. sRNA-mediated antitermination markedly stimulates transcription of rpoS during the transition to the stationary phase of growth, thereby facilitating a rapid adjustment of bacteria to global metabolic changes. Next generation RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis indicate that Rho functions as a global "attenuator" of transcription, acting at the 5'UTR of hundreds of bacterial genes, and that its suppression by sRNAs is a widespread mode of bacterial gene regulation.

Small RNAs and Hfq capture unfolded RNA target sites during transcription.

Small ribonucleoproteins (sRNPs) target nascent precursor RNAs to guide folding, modification, and splicing during transcription. Yet, rapid co-transcriptional folding of the RNA can mask sRNP sites, impeding target recognition and regulation. To examine how sRNPs target nascent RNAs, we monitored binding of bacterial Hfq⋅DsrA sRNPs to rpoS transcripts using single-molecule co-localization co-transcriptional assembly (smCoCoA). We show that Hfq⋅DsrA recursively samples the mRNA before transcription of the target site to poise it for base pairing with DsrA. We adapted smCoCoA to precisely measure when the target site is synthesized and revealed that Hfq⋅DsrA often binds the mRNA during target site synthesis close to RNA polymerase (RNAP). We suggest that targeting transcripts near RNAP allows an sRNP to capture a site before the transcript folds, providing a kinetic advantage over post-transcriptional targeting. We propose that other sRNPs may also use RNAP-proximal targeting to hasten recognition and regulation.

Stepwise sRNA targeting of structured bacterial mRNAs leads to abortive annealing.

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) regulate the expression of hundreds of transcripts via base pairing mediated by the Hfq chaperone protein. sRNAs and the mRNA sites they target are heterogeneous in sequence, length, and secondary structure. To understand how Hfq can flexibly match diverse sRNA and mRNA pairs, we developed a single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) platform that visualizes the target search on timescales relevant in cells. Here we show that unfolding of target secondary structure on Hfq creates a kinetic energy barrier that determines whether target recognition succeeds or aborts before a stable anti-sense complex is achieved. Premature dissociation of the sRNA can be alleviated by strong RNA-Hfq interactions, explaining why sRNAs have different target recognition profiles. We propose that the diverse sequences and structures of Hfq substrates create an additional layer of information that tunes the efficiency and selectivity of non-coding RNA regulation in bacteria.

CRISPR-based screening of small RNA modulators of bile susceptibility in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron.

Microbiota-centric interventions are limited by our incomplete understanding of the gene functions of many of its constituent species. This applies in particular to small RNAs (sRNAs), which are emerging as important regulators in microbiota species yet tend to be missed by traditional functional genomics approaches. Here, we establish CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) in the abundant microbiota member Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron for genome-wide sRNA screens. By assessing the abundance of different protospacer-adjacent motifs, we identify the Prevotella bryantii B14 Cas12a as a suitable nuclease for CRISPR screens in these bacteria and generate an inducible Cas12a expression system. Using a luciferase reporter strain, we infer guide design rules and use this knowledge to assemble a computational pipeline for automated gRNA design. By subjecting the resulting guide library to a phenotypic screen, we uncover the sRNA BatR to increase susceptibility to bile salts through the regulation of genes involved in Bacteroides cell surface structure. Our study lays the groundwork for unlocking the genetic potential of these major human gut mutualists and, more generally, for identifying hidden functions of bacterial sRNAs.

The antivirulent Staphylococcal sRNA SprC regulates CzrB efflux pump to adapt its response to Zinc toxicity.

Bacterial regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are important players to control gene expression. In S. aureus, SprC is an antivirulent trans-acting sRNA known to base-pair with the major autolysin atl mRNA, preventing its translation. Using MS2-affinity purification coupled with RNA sequencing (MAPS), we looked for its sRNA-RNA interactome and identified fourteen novel mRNA targets. In vitro biochemical investigations revealed that SprC binds two of them, czrB and deoD, and uses a single accessible region to regulate its targets, including Atl translation. Unlike Atl regulation, the characterization of the SprC-czrB interaction pinpointed a destabilization of czrAB co-transcript,leading to a decrease of the mRNA level that impaired CzrB Zinc efflux pump expression. On a physiological stand-point, we showed that SprC expression is detrimental to combat against Zinc toxicity. In addition, phagocyctosis assays revealed a significant, but moderate, increase of czrB mRNA level in a sprC-deleted mutant, indicating a functional link between SprC and czrB upon internalization in macrophages, and suggesting a role in resistance to both oxidative and Zinc burst. Altogether, our data uncover a novel pathway in which SprC is implicated, highlighting the multiple strategies employed by S. aureus to balance virulence using an RNA regulator.

Function and mechanism of action of the small regulatory RNA ArcZ in Enterobacterales.

ArcZ is a small regulatory RNA conserved in Enterobacterales It is an Hfq-dependent RNA that is cleaved by RNase E in a processed form of 55-60 nucleotides. This processed form is highly conserved for controlling the expression of target mRNAs. ArcZ expression is induced by abundant oxygen levels and reaches its peak during the stationary growth phase. This control is mediated by the oxygen-responsive two-component system ArcAB, leading to the repression of arcZ transcription under low-oxygen conditions in most bacteria in which it has been studied. ArcZ displays multiple targets, and it can control up to 10% of a genome and interact directly with more than 300 mRNAs in Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica ArcZ displays a multifaceted ability to regulate its targets through diverse mechanisms such as RNase recruitment, modulation of ribosome accessibility on the mRNA, and interaction with translational enhancing regions. By influencing stress response, motility, and virulence through the regulation of master regulators such as FlhDC or RpoS, ArcZ emerges as a major orchestrator of cell physiology within Enterobacterales.

An acetyltranferase moonlights as a regulator of the RNA binding repertoire of the RNA chaperone Hfq in Escherichia coli.

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) regulate gene expression by base-pairing with their target mRNAs. In Escherichia coli and many other bacteria, this process is dependent on the RNA chaperone Hfq, a mediator for sRNA-mRNA annealing. YhbS (renamed here as HqbA), a putative Gcn5-related N-acetyltransferase (GNAT), was previously identified as a silencer of sRNA signaling in a genomic library screen. Here, we studied how HqbA regulates sRNA signaling and investigated its physiological roles in modulating Hfq activity. Using fluorescent reporter assays, we found that HqbA overproduction suppressed all tested Hfq-dependent sRNA signaling. Direct interaction between HqbA and Hfq was demonstrated both in vivo and in vitro, and mutants that blocked the interaction interfered with HqbA suppression of Hfq. However, an acetylation-deficient HqbA mutant still disrupted sRNA signaling, and HqbA interacted with Hfq at a site far from the active site. This suggests that HqbA may be bifunctional, with separate roles for regulating via Hfq interaction and for acetylation of undefined substrates. Gel shift assays revealed that HqbA strongly reduced the interaction between the Hfq distal face and low-affinity RNAs but not high-affinity RNAs. Comparative RNA immunoprecipitation of Hfq and sequencing showed enrichment of two tRNA precursors, metZWV and proM, by Hfq in mutants that lost the HqbA-Hfq interaction. Our results suggest that HqbA provides a level of quality control for Hfq by competing with low-affinity RNA binders.

Recent developments in plant-downy mildew interactions.

Downy mildews are obligate oomycete pathogens that attack a wide range of plants and can cause significant economic impacts on commercial crops and ornamental plants. Traditionally, downy mildew disease control relied on an integrated strategies, that incorporate cultural practices, deployment of resistant cultivars, crop rotation, application of contact and systemic pesticides, and biopesticides. Recent advances in genomics provided data that significantly advanced understanding of downy mildew evolution, taxonomy and classification. In addition, downy mildew genomics also revealed that these obligate oomycetes have reduced numbers of virulence factor genes in comparison to hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic oomycetes. However, downy mildews do deploy significant arrays of virulence proteins, including so-called RXLR proteins that promote virulence or are recognized as avirulence factors. Pathogenomics are being applied to downy mildew population studies to determine the genetic diversity within the downy mildew populations and manage disease by selection of appropriate varieties and management strategies. Genome editing technologies have been used to manipulate host disease susceptibility genes in different plants including grapevine and sweet basil and thereby provide new soucres of resistance genes against downy mildews. Previously, it has proved difficult to transform and manipulate downy mildews because of their obligate lifestyle. However, recent exploitation of RNA interference machinery through Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS) indicate that functional genomics in downy mildews is now possible. Altogether, these breakthrough technologies and attendant fundamental understanding will advance our ability to mitigate downy mildew diseases.

Comparative and functional analysis unveils the contribution of photoperiod to DNA methylation, sRNA accumulation, and gene expression variations in short-day and long-day grasses.

Photoperiod employs complicated networks to regulate various developmental processes in plants, including flowering transition. However, the specific mechanisms by which photoperiod affects epigenetic modifications and gene expression variations in plants remain elusive. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation, small RNA (sRNA) accumulation, and gene expressions under different daylengths in facultative long-day (LD) grass Brachypodium distachyon and short-day (SD) grass rice. Our results showed that while overall DNA methylation levels were minimally affected by different photoperiods, CHH methylation levels were repressed under their favorable light conditions, particularly in rice. We identified numerous differentially methylated regions (DMRs) that were influenced by photoperiod in both plant species. Apart from differential sRNA clusters, we observed alterations in the expression of key components of the RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway, DNA methyltransferases, and demethylases, which may contribute to the identified photoperiod-influenced CHH DMRs. Furthermore, we identified many differentially expressed genes in response to different daylengths, some of which were associated with the DMRs. Notably, we discovered a photoperiod-responsive gene MYB11 in the transcriptome of B. distachyon, and further demonstrated its role as a flowering inhibitor by repressing FT1 transcription. Together, our comparative and functional analysis sheds light on the effects of daylength on DNA methylation, sRNA accumulation, and gene expression variations in LD and SD plants, thereby facilitating better designing breeding programs aimed at developing high-yield crops that can adapt to local growing seasons.

Spatial arrangement of functional domains in OxyS stress response sRNA.

Small noncoding RNAs are an important class of regulatory RNAs in bacteria, often regulating responses to changes in environmental conditions. OxyS is a 110 nt, stable, trans-encoded small RNA found in Escherichia coli and is induced by an increased concentration of hydrogen peroxide. OxyS has an important regulatory role in cell stress response, affecting the expression of multiple genes. In this work, we investigated the structure of OxyS and the interaction with fhlA mRNA using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering, and unbiased molecular dynamics simulations. We determined the secondary structures of isolated stem-loops and confirmed their structural integrity in OxyS. Unexpectedly, stem-loop SL4 was identified in the region that was predicted to be unstructured. Three-dimensional models of OxyS demonstrate that OxyS adopts an extended structure with four solvent-exposed stem-loops, which are available for interaction with other RNAs and proteins. Furthermore, we provide evidence of base-pairing between OxyS and fhlA mRNA.

sRNAfrag: a pipeline and suite of tools to analyze fragmentation in small RNA sequencing data.

Fragments derived from small RNAs such as small nucleolar RNAs are biologically relevant but remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we developed sRNAfrag, a modular and interoperable tool designed to standardize the quantification and analysis of small RNA fragmentation across various biotypes. The tool outputs a set of tables forming a relational database, allowing for an in-depth exploration of biologically complex events such as multi-mapping and RNA fragment stability across different cell types. In a benchmark test, sRNAfrag was able to identify established loci of mature microRNAs solely based on sequencing data. Furthermore, the 5' seed sequence could be rediscovered by utilizing a visualization approach primarily applied in multi-sequence-alignments. Utilizing the relational database outputs, we detected 1411 snoRNA fragment conservation events between two out of four eukaryotic species, providing an opportunity to explore motifs through evolutionary time and conserved fragmentation patterns. Additionally, the tool's interoperability with other bioinformatics tools like ViennaRNA amplifies its utility for customized analyses. We also introduce a novel loci-level variance-score which provides insights into the noise around peaks and demonstrates biological relevance by distinctly separating breast cancer and neuroblastoma cell lines after dimension reduction when applied to small nucleolar RNAs. Overall, sRNAfrag serves as a versatile foundation for advancing our understanding of small RNA fragments and offers a functional foundation to further small RNA research. Availability: https://github.com/kenminsoo/sRNAfrag.

Ribonuclease E: Chopping Knife and Sculpting Tool.

In this issue of Molecular Cell, Chao et al. (2017) investigate the important role of the low-specificity endonuclease RNase E in shaping the transcriptome of a bacterial pathogen by functioning as both a degradative enzyme and an RNA maturase.

In Vivo Cleavage Map Illuminates the Central Role of RNase E in Coding and Non-coding RNA Pathways.

Understanding RNA processing and turnover requires knowledge of cleavages by major endoribonucleases within a living cell. We have employed TIER-seq (transiently inactivating an endoribonuclease followed by RNA-seq) to profile cleavage products of the essential endoribonuclease RNase E in Salmonella enterica. A dominating cleavage signature is the location of a uridine two nucleotides downstream in a single-stranded segment, which we rationalize structurally as a key recognition determinant that may favor RNase E catalysis. Our results suggest a prominent biogenesis pathway for bacterial regulatory small RNAs whereby RNase E acts together with the RNA chaperone Hfq to liberate stable 3' fragments from various precursor RNAs. Recapitulating this process in vitro, Hfq guides RNase E cleavage of a representative small-RNA precursor for interaction with a mRNA target. In vivo, the processing is required for target regulation. Our findings reveal a general maturation mechanism for a major class of post-transcriptional regulators.

Target recognition by RNase E RNA-binding domain AR2 drives sRNA decay in the absence of PNPase.

The C-terminal domain (CTD) of the major endoribonuclease RNase E not only serves as a scaffold for the central RNA decay machinery in gram-negative bacteria but also mediates coupled degradation of small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) and their cognate target transcripts following RNA chaperone Hfq-facilitated sRNA-mRNA base pairing. Despite the crucial role of RNase E CTD in sRNA-dependent gene regulation, the contribution of particular residues within this domain in recruiting sRNAs and mRNAs upon base pairing remains unknown. We have previously shown that in Escherichia coli, the highly conserved 3'-5'-exoribonuclease polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase) paradoxically stabilizes sRNAs by limiting access of RNase E to Hfq-bound sRNAs and by degrading target mRNA fragments that would otherwise promote sRNA decay. Here, we report that in the absence of PNPase, the RNA-binding region AR2 in the CTD is required for RNase E to initiate degradation of the Hfq-dependent sRNAs CyaR and RyhB. Additionally, we show that introducing mutations in either hfq that disrupts target mRNA binding to Hfq or the AR2 coding region of rne impairs RNase E binding to sRNAs. Altogether, our data support a model where sRNAs are recruited via bound mRNA targets to RNase E by its AR2 domain after Hfq catalyzes sRNA-mRNA pairing. These results also support our conclusion that in a PNPase-deficient strain, more rapid decay of sRNAs occurs due to accelerated pairing with mRNA targets as a consequence of their accumulation. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms by which sRNAs and mRNAs are regulated by RNase E.

Dual-function AzuCR RNA modulates carbon metabolism.

SignificanceWhile most small, regulatory RNAs are thought to be "noncoding," a few have been found to also encode a small protein. Here we describe a 164-nucleotide RNA that encodes a 28-amino acid, amphipathic protein, which interacts with aerobic glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and increases dehydrogenase activity but also base pairs with two mRNAs to reduce expression. The coding and base-pairing sequences overlap, and the two regulatory functions compete.

Dual-function Spot 42 RNA encodes a 15-amino acid protein that regulates the CRP transcription factor.

SignificanceDual-function RNAs base pair with target messenger RNAs as small regulatory RNAs and encode small protein regulators. However, only a limited number of these dual-function regulators have been identified. In this study, we show that a well-characterized base-pairing small RNA surprisingly also encodes a 15-amino acid protein. The very small protein binds the cyclic adenosine monophosphate receptor protein transcription factor to block activation of some promoters, raising the question of how many other transcription factors are modulated by unidentified small proteins.

Bacterial nucleoid is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma.

Bacterial chromosome, the nucleoid, is traditionally modeled as a rosette of DNA mega-loops, organized around proteinaceous central scaffold by nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs), and mixed with the cytoplasm by transcription and translation. Electron microscopy of fixed cells confirms dispersal of the cloud-like nucleoid within the ribosome-filled cytoplasm. Here, I discuss evidence that the nucleoid in live cells forms DNA phase separate from riboprotein phase, the "riboid." I argue that the nucleoid-riboid interphase, where DNA interacts with NAPs, transcribing RNA polymerases, nascent transcripts, and ssRNA chaperones, forms the transcription zone. An active part of phase separation, transcription zone enforces segregation of the centrally positioned information phase (the nucleoid) from the surrounding action phase (the riboid), where translation happens, protein accumulates, and metabolism occurs. I speculate that HU NAP mostly tiles up the nucleoid periphery-facilitating DNA mobility but also supporting transcription in the interphase. Besides extruding plectonemically supercoiled DNA mega-loops, condensins could compact them into solenoids of uniform rings, while HU could support rigidity and rotation of these DNA rings. The two-phase cytoplasm arrangement allows the bacterial cell to organize the central dogma activities, where (from the cell center to its periphery) DNA replicates and segregates, DNA is transcribed, nascent mRNA is handed over to ribosomes, mRNA is translated into proteins, and finally, the used mRNA is recycled into nucleotides at the inner membrane. The resulting information-action conveyor, with one activity naturally leading to the next one, explains the efficiency of prokaryotic cell design-even though its main intracellular transportation mode is free diffusion.

Lack of polyamines leads to cotranslational degradation of the general stress factor RpoS in Escherichia coli.

The specialized sigma factor RpoS mediates a general stress response in Escherichia coli and related bacteria, activating promoters that allow cells to survive stationary phase and many stresses. RpoS synthesis and stability are regulated at multiple levels. Translation of RpoS is positively regulated by multiple small RNAs in response to stress. Degradation of RpoS, dependent upon the adaptor protein RssB, is rapid during exponential growth and ceases upon starvation or other stresses, increasing accumulation of RpoS. E. coli carrying mutations that block the synthesis of polyamines were previously found to have low levels of RpoS, while levels increased rapidly when polyamines were added. We have used a series of reporters to examine the basis for the lack of RpoS in polyamine-deficient cells. The polyamine requirement was independent of small RNA-mediated positive regulation of RpoS translation. Mutations in rssB stabilize RpoS and significantly bypassed the polyamine deficit, suggesting that lack of polyamines might lead to rapid RpoS degradation. However, rates of degradation of mature RpoS were unaffected by polyamine availability. Codon optimization in rpoS partially relieved the polyamine dependence, suggesting a defect in RpoS translation in the absence of polyamines. Consistent with this, a hyperproofreading allele of ribosomal protein S12, encoded by rpsL, showed a decrease in RpoS levels, and this decrease was also suppressed by either codon optimization or blocking RpoS degradation. We suggest that rpoS codon usage leads it to be particularly sensitive to slowed translation, due to either lack of polyamines or hyperproofreading, leading to cotranslational degradation. We dedicate this study to Herb Tabor and his foundational work on polyamines, including the basis for this study.

DNA methylation remodeling in F1 hybrids.

F1 hybrids derived from a cross between two inbred parental lines often display widespread changes in DNA methylation patterns relative to their parents. To which extent these changes drive non-additive gene expression levels and phenotypic heterosis in F1 individuals is not fully resolved. Current mechanistic models propose that DNA methylation remodeling in hybrids is the result of epigenetic interactions between parental alleles via small interfering RNA (sRNA). These models have strong empirical support but are limited to genomic regions where the two parental lines differ in DNA methylation status. However, most remodeling events occur in parental regions with similar methylation patterns, and seem to be strongly conditioned by distally acting factors, even in isogenic hybrid systems. The molecular basis of these distal interactions is currently unknown, and will likely emerge as an active area of research in the future. Despite these gaps in our molecular understanding, parental DNA methylation states are statistically associated with heterosis, independent of genetic information, and may serve as biomarkers in crop breeding.

Networks of Resistance: Small RNA Control of Antibiotic Resistance.

The golden age of antibiotics has passed, and the threat of untreatable antimicrobial resistant infections is now a reality for many individuals. Understanding how bacteria resist antimicrobial treatment and regulate gene expression in response to antibiotics is an important step towards combating resistance. In this review we focus on a ubiquitous class of bacterial gene regulators termed regulatory small RNAs (sRNAs) and how they contribute to antimicrobial resistance and tolerance. Small RNAs have notable roles in modulating the composition of the bacterial envelope, and through these functions control intrinsic antimicrobial resistance in many human pathogens. Recent technical advances that allow profiling of the 'sRNA interactome' have revealed a complex post-transcriptional network of sRNA interactions that can be used to identify network hubs and regulatory bottlenecks. Sequence-specific inhibition of these sRNAs with programmable RNA-targeting therapeutics may present avenues for treating antimicrobial resistant pathogens or resensitizing to our current antibiotics.