The role of autonomic pathways in peripheral apelin-induced gastrointestinal dysmotility: involvement of the circumventricular organs.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Are central autonomic pathways and circumventricular organs involved in apelin-induced inhibition of gut motility? What is the main finding and its importance? Peripherally administered apelin-13 inhibits gastric and colonic motor functions through sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic pathways, which seems to be partly mediated by the apelin receptor in circumventricular organs. ABSTRACT: Peripheral administration of apelin-13 has been shown to inhibit gastrointestinal (GI) motility, but the relevant mechanisms are incompletely understood. This study aimed to investigate (i) whether the apelin receptor (APJ) is expressed in circumventricular structures involved in autonomic functions, (ii) whether they are activated by peripherally administered apelin, (iii) the role of autonomic pathways in peripheral exogenous apelin-induced GI dysmotility, and (iv) the changes in apelin levels in the extracellular environment of the brain following its peripheral application. Ninety minutes after apelin-13 administration (300 µg kg-1 , i.p.), gastric emptying (GE) and colon transit (CT) were measured in rats that underwent parasympathectomy and/or sympathectomy. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were also collected from another group of rats that received apelin-13 or vehicle injection. The immunoreactivities for APJ and c-Fos in circumventricular organs (CVOs) were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Compared with vehicle-treated rats, GE and CT were inhibited significantly by apelin-13 treatment, and were completely restored in animals that underwent the combination of parasympathectomy and sympathectomy and sympathectomy alone, respectively. Apelin concentrations were elevated in both plasma and CSF following peripheral administration of apelin-13. APJ expression was detected in area postrema (AP), subfornical organ and organum vasculosum of lamina terminalis, and c-Fos expression was observed in response to apelin injection. Apelin-induced c-Fos expression in AP was partially attenuated by pretreatment with the cholecystokinin-1 receptor antagonist lorglumide, whereas it was completely abolished in vagotomized rats. The present data suggest that APJ in CVOs could indirectly contribute to the inhibitory action of peripheral apelin on GI motor functions.

Toll-like receptor 4 agonist and antagonist lipopolysaccharides modify innate immune response in rat brain circumventricular organs.

BACKGROUND: The circumventricular organs (CVOs) are blood-brain-barrier missing structures whose activation through lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a starting point for TLR-driven (Toll-like receptors) neuroinflammation. The aim of this study was to evaluate in the CVO area postrema (AP), subfornical organ (SFO), and median eminence (ME), the inflammatory response to two TLR4 agonists: LPS from Escherichia coli (EC-LPS), the strongest endotoxin molecule described, and LPS from Porphyromonas gingivalis (PG-LPS), a pathogenic bacteria present in the periodontium related to neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative/psychiatric diseases. The response to LPS from the cyanobacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides (RS-LPS), a TLR4 antagonist with an interesting anti-inflammatory potential, was also assessed. METHODS: LPSs were intraperitoneally administered to Wistar rats and, as indicatives of neuroinflammation in CVOs, the cellular localization of the nuclear factor NF-κB was studied by immunofluorescence, and microglia morphology was quantified by fractal and skeleton analysis. RESULTS: Data showed that EC-LPS increased NF-κB nuclear translocation in the three CVOs studied and PG-LPS only induced NF-κB nuclear translocation in the ME. RS-LPS showed no difference in NF-κB nuclear translocation compared to control. Microglia in the three CVOs showed an ameboid-shape after EC-LPS exposure, whereas PG-LPS only elicited a mild tendency to induce an ameboid shape. On the other hand, RS-LPS produced a markedly elongated morphology described as "rod" microglia in the three CVOs. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, at the doses tested, EC-LPS induces a stronger neuroinflammatory response than PG-LPS in CVOs, which might be related to their different potency as TLR4 agonists. The non-reduction of basal NF-κB activation and induction of rod microglia by RS-LPS, a cell morphology only present in severe brain injury and infections, suggests that this molecule must be carefully studied before being proposed as an anti-inflammatory treatment for neuroinflammation related to neurodegenerative/psychiatric diseases.

Vascular endothelial growth factor-dependent angiogenesis and dynamic vascular plasticity in the sensory circumventricular organs of adult mouse brain.

The sensory circumventricular organs (CVOs), which comprise the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT), the subfornical organ (SFO) and the area postrema (AP), lack a typical blood-brain barrier (BBB) and monitor directly blood-derived information to regulate body fluid homeostasis, inflammation, feeding and vomiting. Until now, almost nothing has been documented about vascular features of the sensory CVOs except fenestration of vascular endothelial cells. We therefore examine whether continuous angiogenesis occurs in the sensory CVOs of adult mouse. The angiogenesis-inducing factor vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and the VEGF-A-regulating transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1α were highly expressed in neurons of the OVLT and SFO and in both neurons and astrocytes of the AP. Expression of the pericyte-regulating factor platelet-derived growth factor B was high in astrocytes of the sensory CVOs. Immunohistochemistry of bromodeoxyuridine and Ki-67, a nuclear protein that is associated with cellular proliferation, revealed active proliferation of endothelial cells. Moreover, immunohistochemistry of caspase-3 and the basement membrane marker laminin showed the presence of apoptosis and sprouting of endothelial cells, respectively. Treatment with the VEGF receptor-associated tyrosine kinase inhibitor AZD2171 significantly reduced proliferation and filopodia sprouting of endothelial cells, as well as the area and diameter of microvessels. The mitotic inhibitor cytosine-b-D-arabinofuranoside reduced proliferation of endothelial cells and the vascular permeability of blood-derived low-molecular-weight molecules without changing vascular area and microvessel diameter. Thus, our data indicate that continuous angiogenesis is dependent on VEGF signaling and responsible for the dynamic plasticity of vascular structure and permeability.

Activation of microglia and macrophages in the circumventricular organs of the mouse brain during TLR2-induced fever and sickness responses.

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) recognizes cell wall components from Gram-positive bacteria. Until now, however, little has been known about the significance of brain TLR2 in controlling inflammation and thermoregulatory responses during systemic Gram-positive bacterial infection. In the present study, the TLR2 immunoreactivity was seen to be prominent in the microglia/macrophages of the circumventricular organs (CVOs) of the mouse brain. The intraperitoneal injection of Pam3CSK4, a TLR2 agonist, induced nuclear factor-κ B activation in the microglia/macrophages of the CVOs. The injection of Pam3CSK4 also produced the expression of Fos at astrocytes and neurons in the CVOs and the regions neighboring the CVOs. The Pam3CSK4 injection induced fever and sickness responses. Pretreatment with lipopolysaccharide, a TLR4 agonist, augmented the Pam3CSK4-induced fever together with the increased TLR2 immunoreactivity. These results indicate that the TLR2 in microglia/macrophages of the CVOs are possibly associated with initiating and transmitting inflammatory responses in the brain.

TLR4 in circumventricular neural stem cells is a negative regulator for thermogenic pathways in the mouse brain.

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) recognizes bacteria-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In the present study, we found that intraperitoneal LPS activated nuclear factor-κ B (NF-κB) in TLR4-expressing neural stem cells (NSCs) in the circumventricular brain regions of mice. Intracerebroventricular preadministration of low-dose TLR4 inhibitors significantly augmented hyperthermia together with the inhibition of NF-κB activation in circumventricular NSCs of LPS-inflamed animals. Moreover, intracerebroventricular administration of high-dose TLR4 inhibitors induced hyperthermia and Fos activation in circumventricular NSCs and hypothalamic neurons. These results suggest that TLR4 on circumventricular NSCs functions as a central regulator for thermogenesis under inflamed and normal conditions.

The ethanol metabolite acetaldehyde induces water and salt intake via two distinct pathways in the central nervous system of rats.

The sensation of thirst experienced after heavy alcohol drinking is widely regarded as a consequence of ethanol (EtOH)-induced diuresis, but EtOH in high doses actually induces anti-diuresis. The present study was designed to investigate the introduction mechanism of water and salt intake after heavy alcohol drinking, focusing on action of acetaldehyde, a metabolite of EtOH and a toxic substance, using rats. The aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) inhibitor cyanamide was used to mimic the effect of prolonged acetaldehyde exposure because acetaldehyde is quickly degraded by ALDH. Systemic administration of a high-dose of EtOH at 2.5 g/kg induced water and salt intake with anti-diuresis. Cyanamide enhanced the fluid intake following EtOH and acetaldehyde administration. Systemic administration of acetaldehyde with cyanamide suppressed blood pressure and increased plasma renin activity. Blockade of central angiotensin receptor AT1R suppressed the acetaldehyde-induced fluid intake and c-Fos expression in the circumventricular organs (CVOs), which form part of dipsogenic mechanism in the brain. In addition, central administration of acetaldehyde together with cyanamide selectively induced water but not salt intake without changes in blood pressure. In electrophysiological recordings from slice preparations, acetaldehyde specifically excited angiotensin-sensitive neurons in the CVO. These results suggest that acetaldehyde evokes the thirst sensation following heavy alcohol drinking, by two distinct and previously unsuspected mechanisms, independent of diuresis. First acetaldehyde indirectly activates AT1R in the dipsogenic centers via the peripheral renin-angiotensin system following the depressor response and induces both water and salt intake. Secondly acetaldehyde directly activates neurons in the dipsogenic centers and induces only water intake.

Astrocytic TLR4 expression and LPS-induced nuclear translocation of STAT3 in the sensory circumventricular organs of adult mouse brain.

The sensory circumventricular organs (CVOs) comprise the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT), subfornical organ (SFO), and area postrema (AP) and lack the blood-brain barrier. The expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was seen at astrocytes throughout the sensory CVOs and at microglia in the AP and solitary nucleus around the central canal. The peripheral and central administration of lipopolysaccharide induced a similar pattern of nuclear translocation of STAT3. A microglia inhibitor minocycline largely suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced astrocytic nuclear translocation of STAT3 in the OVLT and AP, but its effect was less in the SFO.

Monoclonal antibody targeting of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1c ameliorates obesity and glucose intolerance via central mechanisms.

We have generated a novel monoclonal antibody targeting human FGFR1c (R1c mAb) that caused profound body weight and body fat loss in diet-induced obese mice due to decreased food intake (with energy expenditure unaltered), in turn improving glucose control. R1c mAb also caused weight loss in leptin-deficient ob/ob mice, leptin receptor-mutant db/db mice, and in mice lacking either the melanocortin 4 receptor or the melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1. In addition, R1c mAb did not change hypothalamic mRNA expression levels of Agrp, Cart, Pomc, Npy, Crh, Mch, or Orexin, suggesting that R1c mAb could cause food intake inhibition and body weight loss via other mechanisms in the brain. Interestingly, peripherally administered R1c mAb accumulated in the median eminence, adjacent arcuate nucleus and in the circumventricular organs where it activated the early response gene c-Fos. As a plausible mechanism and coinciding with the initiation of food intake suppression, R1c mAb induced hypothalamic expression levels of the cytokines Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and 3 and ERK1/2 and p70 S6 kinase 1 activation.