Minimum Ages of Legal Access for Tobacco in the United States From 1863 to 2015.

In the United States, state laws establish a minimum age of legal access (MLA) for most tobacco products at 18 years. We reviewed the history of these laws with internal tobacco industry documents and newspaper archives from 1860 to 2014. The laws appeared in the 1880s; by 1920, half of states had set MLAs of at least 21 years. After 1920, tobacco industry lobbying eroded them to between 16 and 18 years. By the 1980s, the tobacco industry viewed restoration of higher MLAs as a critical business threat. The industry's political advocacy reflects its assessment that recruiting youth smokers is critical to its survival. The increasing evidence on tobacco addiction suggests that restoring MLAs to 21 years would reduce smoking initiation and prevalence, particularly among those younger than 18 years.

Tobacco use screening and treatment by outpatient psychiatrists before and after release of the American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines for nicotine dependence.

OBJECTIVES: We examined tobacco use screening and treatment by US psychiatrists before and after release of the 1996 American Psychiatric Association (APA) nicotine dependence treatment guidelines. METHODS: We used data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey to identify rates of tobacco screening and treatment by psychiatrists before the release of the guidelines (1993-1996) and during 2 postguidelines periods: 2001-2005 and 2006-2010. Multiple logistic regression was used to compare preguidelines and postguidelines rates. RESULTS: Psychiatrists screened for tobacco use during 77% of visits from 1993 to 1996, 69% of visits from 2001 to 2005 (odds ratio [OR] = 0.69; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.64, 0.75), and 60% of visits from 2006 to 2010 (OR = 0.46; 95% CI = 0.43, 0.50). Psychiatrists provided cessation counseling to 12% of smokers from 1993 to 1996, 11% from 2001 to 2005 (OR = 0.97; 95% CI = 0.74, 1.26), and 23% from 2006 to 2010 (OR = 2.23; 95% CI = 1.74, 2.86). Psychiatrists prescribed nicotine replacement therapy to fewer than 1% of smokers during all 3 time periods. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatrists are screening for tobacco use at declining rates, and the proportion of smokers provided with treatment remains low.

Politics, profit, and psychiatric diagnosis: a case study of tobacco use disorder.

The idea of tobacco or nicotine dependence as a specific psychiatric diagnosis appeared in 1980 and has evolved through successive editions of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Not surprisingly, the tobacco industry attempted to challenge this diagnosis through behind-the-scenes influence. But another entity put corporate muscle into supporting the diagnosis-the pharmaceutical industry. Psychiatry's ongoing professional challenges have left it vulnerable to multiple professional, social, and commercial forces. The example of tobacco use disorder illustrates that mental health concepts used to develop public health goals and policy need to be critically assessed. I review the conflicting commercial, professional, and political aims that helped to construct psychiatric diagnoses relating to smoking. This history suggests that a diagnosis regarding tobacco has as much to do with social and cultural circumstances as it does with science.

Scientific research and corporate influence: smoking, mental illness, and the tobacco industry.

Mentally ill individuals have always smoked at high rates and continue to do so, despite public health efforts to encourage smoking cessation. In the last half century, the tobacco industry became interested in this connection, and conducted and supported psychiatric and basic science research on the mental health implications of smoking, long before most mental health professionals outside the industry investigated this issue. Initially, representatives of tobacco industry research organizations supported genetics and psychosomatic research to try to disprove findings that smoking causes lung cancer. Tobacco industry research leaders engaged with investigators because of shared priorities and interests in the brain effects of nicotine. By the 1980s, collaborative funding programs and individual company research and development teams engaged in intramural and extramural basic science studies on the neuropharmacology of nicotine. When mental health researchers outside the industry became interested in the issue of the mentally ill and smoking in the mid-1990s, they increasingly explained it in terms of a disease of nicotine addiction. Both the idea that smoking/nicotine does something positive for the mentally ill and the conclusion that it is the result of nicotine dependence have the potential to support corporate agendas (tobacco or pharmaceutical).

[Smoking history worldwide--cigarette smoking, passive smoking and smoke free environment in Switzerland]. / Die Geschichte des Rauchens--wie Nichtrauchen wieder gesellschaftsfähig wird.

After the invention of the cigarette 1881 the health consequences of active smoking were fully known only in 1964. Since 1986 research findings allow increasingly stronger conclusions about the impact of passive smoking on health, especially for lung cancer, cardiovascular and respiratory disease in adults and children and the sudden infant death syndrome. On the basis of current consumption patterns, approximately 450 million adults will be killed by smoking between 2000 and 2050. At least half of these adults will die between age 30 and 69. Cancer and total deaths due to smoking have fallen so far only in men in high-income countries but will rise globally unless current smokers stop smoking before or during middle age. Higher taxes, regulations on smoking, including 100 % smoke free indoor spaces, and information for consumers could avoid smoking-associated deaths. Irland was 2004 the first country worldwide introducing smoke free bars and restaurants with positive effects on compliance, health of employees and business. In the first year after the introduction these policies have resulted in a 10 - 20 % reduction of acute coronary events. In Switzerland smoke free regulations have been accepted by popular vote first in the canton of Ticino in 2006 and since then in 15 more cantons. The smoking rate dropped from 33 to 27 % since 2001.

Global patterns of nicotine and tobacco consumption.

Humans consume tobacco in dozens of guises, all of which are toxic; globally, a tenth of deaths among adults are caused by tobacco. Tobacco may be combusted (e.g., cigarettes, bidis, kreteks); heated (e.g., waterpipes, hookah, nargile); or taken orally or nasally (e.g., snuff, betel quid, chewing tobacco). The predominant forms vary among cultures, but the use of cigarettes has grown most dramatically in the past century. While smoking rates among women are comparable to those among men in Europe and North America, in other regions the rate is ten or more times higher among men; this gender gap is closing among young people. Per capita tobacco use in the USA doubled in the first half of the twentieth century, and has since declined to less than the 1900 levels. While cigarettes were only 2% of tobacco consumed in the USA in 1900 (half was chewing tobacco) 50 years later they were over 80%. A similar increase in tobacco consumption, and a shift to cigarettes, has been occurring globally, with a concomitant increase in tobacco-related death and disease that is not expected to peak for another two decades.

[Tobacco: sacred and profane as regards smoke]. / Le tabac: sacré et profane à propos de fumée.

Blowing smoke was a sacred habit among the American Indian people in Brazil at the arrival of the first Europeans. That remains a practice of prevention and recovery among the remote people of Amazon and Rio Negro. Addiction to smoking was propagated by Nicot in Europe for the pleasure it procures but it became such real plague of the modern society that every country has to struggle against its given attractive image of a way of life.

Meanings & motives. Experts debating tobacco addiction.

Over the last 50 years, tobacco has been excluded from and then included in the category of addictive substances. We investigated influences on these opposing definitions and their application in expert witness testimony in litigation in the 1990s and 2000s. A scientist with ties to the tobacco industry influenced the selection of a definition of addiction that led to the classification of tobacco as a "habituation" in the 1964 Surgeon General's Advisory Committee report. Tobacco was later defined as addictive in the 1988 surgeon general's report. Expert witnesses for tobacco companies used the 1964 report's definition until Philip Morris Tobacco Company publicly changed its position in 1997 to agree that nicotine was addictive. Expert witnesses for plaintiffs suing the tobacco industry used the 1988 report's definition, arguing that new definitions were superior because of scientific advance. Both sides viewed addiction as an objective entity that could be defined more or less accurately.

[Evarts A. Graham (1883-1957)--biography and medical achievements. His input into the knowledge of carcinogenic actions of tobacco]. / Evarts A. Graham (1883-1957)--biografia i osiagniecia medyczne. Wklad do wiedzy o rakotwórczym dzialaniu tytoniu.

Evarts Ambrose Graham (1883-1957) was one of the most prominent American surgeons of the 20th century. Some believe that he belonged, together with William Halsted and Harvey Cushing, to the three most respected American surgeons. Graham was mainly dedicated to thoraco-surgery. He proposed a new treatment for empyema of the chest, based on the physiological understanding of pleural mechanics. He introduced the cholecystography method for the visualization of gall bladder and performed the first total one-stage pneumonectomy. Moreover, he was actively engaged in the studies of carcinogenic influence of tobacco and an association between tobacco smoking and lung carcinoma.

Community pharmacists and tobacco in Great Britain: from selling cigarettes to smoking cessation services.

AIMS: To illustrate the ways in which community pharmacists in Great Britain have been able to benefit from a close association with tobacco and smoking from its initial importation to the present time. DESIGN: An analysis of relevant texts and documents, together with brief transcripts from an oral history investigation of community pharmacy in Great Britain. SETTING: Community pharmacies in Great Britain during the 20th century. PARTICIPANTS: Retired and practising community pharmacists with experience of the sale of tobacco products during the period. MEASUREMENTS: Oral testimony of retired and practising community pharmacists about the use and sale of tobacco products, and quantitative analysis of commercially available products designed to help people stop smoking during the period. FINDINGS: Community pharmacists have been involved continuously with the tobacco habit since its first introduction into Britain. During the course of the 20th century the emphasis shifted from the sale of tobacco products to the sale of medicines intended to help people to give up smoking. Smoking cessation initiatives continue to be an important part of the business of many pharmacies. CONCLUSIONS: The paper illustrates the continuing tension that exists between pharmacy as business and pharmacy as profession. The sale of tobacco products and, more recently, products to help people give up smoking, has been a small but significant part of the business of many community pharmacists throughout the centuries.

[A persistence of tobacco smoking addiction in economically severely underdeveloped regions of Poland--the case of the Green Forest and White Forest]. / Utrzymywanie sie nalogu palenia tytoniu na terenach skrajnie zacofanych gospodarczo--przyklad Puszczy Zielonej i Bialej.

In the 19-th and early 20-th centuries the regions of the Green Forest and White Forest (Central Poland) comprised a reservoir of rural people living on the verge of biological existence. Despite material deficiencies, tobacco smoking addiction was common--nearly 100% of the male population was smokers. An analysis of ethnographic findings suggests that the permanence of addiction could have been caused by 1. the early initiation of smoking and acceptance of smoking by under-ages, 2. the spreading of the practice of replacing tobacco, when in deficit, by other materials such as dried potato leaves, clover leaves or even feces of horses. One can assume that stimuli linked with non-tobacco-exposed smoking may also have an important influence on maintaining addiction.

Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions: Lara A. Ray.

The APA Awards for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology recognize psychologists who have demonstrated excellence early in their careers and have held a doctoral degree for no more than 9 years. One of the 2017 award winners is Lara A. Ray, for "her substantive and innovative research on mechanisms that underlie alcohol and tobacco use disorders and for leveraging that knowledge to develop new, personalized treatment approaches for these disorders." Ray's award citation, biography, and a selected bibliography are presented here. (PsycINFO Database Record

[The history of antitobacco actions in the last 500 years. part. 1. Non-medical actions]. / Historia dzialan antynikotynowych w okresie ostatnich 500 lat. Czesc I. Dzialania o charakterze pozamedycznym.

Tobacco was brought to Europe by Christopher Columbus, who discovered it in Cuba in October, 1492. Spread of tobacco consumption was initiated by the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain, who in 1560 recommended it in the form of powdered tobacco leaves to the French Queen Catherine de Medice to combat her migraine headaches, and introduced the term Nicotiana tobaccum. Tobacco consumption greatly rose after the I World War, and after the II World War it became very common, especially among man. In the first half of the 20th century the sale of tobacco products rose by 61%, and cigarettes dominated the market of tobacco products. At the beginning of the 20th century cigarettes constituted only 2% of the total sale of tobacco products, while in the middle of the 20th century--more than 80%. Although the first epidemiological papers indicating that "smoking is connected with the shortening of life span" were published in the first half of the 20th century, not until 1950 did Hill and Doll in Great Britain, and Wynder and Graham in USA in 1951 show a statistically significant correlation between cigarettes smoking and lung cancer occurrence. Many controversies according the use of tobacco accompanied it from the beginning of its presence in Europe. The conflicting opinions according to its influence to health coexisted in the 16th to 19th centuries. In this period, especially in the 19th century dominated moral and religious arguments against tobacco. In the 20th century however, and particularly in its second part, development in medical research was enhanced by civil voluntary actions against advertisement and passive smoking. This lead to the significant limitation of tobacco expansion in Europe, USA and Canada in the end of the 20th century.

[The history of antitobacco actions in the last 500 years. Part. II. Medical actions]. / Historia dzialan antynikotynowych w okresie ostatnich 500 lat. Czesc ii. Dzialania o charakterze medycznym.

Tobacco was brought to Europe by Christopher Columbus, who discovered it in Cuba in October, 1492. Spread of tobacco consumption was initiated by the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain, who in 1560 recommended it in the form of powdered tobacco leaves to the French Queen Catherine de Medice to combat her migraine headaches, and introduced the term Nicotiana tobaccum. Tobacco consumption greatly rose after the I World War, and after the II World War it became very common, especially among man. In the first half of the 20th century the sale of tobacco products rose by 61%, and cigarettes dominated the market of tobacco products. At the beginning of the 20th century cigarettes constituted only 2% of the total sale of tobacco products, while in the middle of the 20th century--more than 80%. Although the first epidemiological papers indicating that "smoking is connected with the shortening of life span" were published in the first half of the 20th century, not until 1950 did Hill and Doll in Great Britain, and Wynder and Graham in USA in 1951 show a statistically significant correlation between cigarettes smoking and lung cancer occurrence. Many controversies according the use of tobacco accompanied it from the beginning of its presence in Europe. The conflicting opinions according to its influence to health coexisted in the 16th to 19th centuries. In this period, especially in the 19th century dominated moral and religious arguments against tobacco. In the 20th century however, and particularly in its second part, development in medical research was enhanced by civil voluntary actions against advertisement and passive smoking. This lead to the significant limitation of tobacco expansion in Europe, USA and Canada in the end of the 20th century.

Evarts Ambrose Graham (1883-1957), doyen of pulmonary surgeons.

Evarts Graham performed the first successful pneumonectomy in 1933. Evarts Ambrose Graham, the son of a Scotch Irish surgeon, was born on 19 March 1883. After early schooling in Chicago, he graduated at Princeton and returned to Chicago to study Medicine, taking his MD at Rush Medical College in 1907. The chemical aspects of pathological changes then occupied him fully until 1919, when he was appointed full-time professor of surgery at the Washington School of Medicine in St Louis. Visualisation of gallstones temporarily took his attention, but bronchogenic carcinoma was seldom far from his thoughts, and he recognised (too late to save himself) the causative association with cigarette smoking by 1950. He died on 4 March 1957.

[Tobacco and tobacco use disorder in the history of Mexico and Europe]. / Tabaco y tabaquismo en la historia de México y de Europa.

The tobacco used for a long time by American and Caribbean natives was introduced into Europe at the end of XV century, and essentially during the XVI century, by travelers returning to their Fatherlands. After the tobacco industry was organized, several concerns arose regarding medical and social care for the workers in the tobacco factories. Medical and hygienic aspects were reflected in a whole chapter (the XVII) of the Ramazzini's Treatise on Medicine of Work, published in 1700. Concerning social care for the workers' families, the creation, April 1796, of nursery schools for the children of working women in tobacco factories of the New Spain must be recalled. In opposition to the predictions of some natives and visitors during the last centuries, with the passage of time, the tobacco habit instead of decreasing, became progressively more accentuated in all social classes. To aggravate conditions, at present, the noxious effects of the tobacco smoke are combined with those of environmental contamination. Recent epidemiological reports on the number and health conditions of smokers, as well as the National Antitobacco Program in Mexico, are mentioned.