Risk of Inflammation, Retinal Vasculitis, and Retinal Occlusion-Related Events with Brolucizumab: Post Hoc Review of HAWK and HARRIER.

PURPOSE: An independent Safety Review Committee (SRC), supported by Novartis Pharma AG, analyzed investigator-reported cases of intraocular inflammation (IOI), endophthalmitis, and retinal arterial occlusion in the phase 3 HAWK and HARRIER trials of brolucizumab versus aflibercept in neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD). DESIGN: A post hoc analysis of a subset of data from two 2-year, double-masked, multicenter, active-controlled randomized phase 3 trials (NCT02307682, NCT02434328). PARTICIPANTS: Patients (N = 1817) with untreated, active choroidal neovascularization due to age-related macular degeneration in the study eye were randomized and treated in HAWK/HARRIER. The SRC reviewed data from cases of investigator-reported IOI (60/1088 brolucizumab-treated eyes; 8/729 aflibercept-treated eyes). METHODS: The SRC received details and images (color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and OCT) for all investigator-determined cases of IOI, retinal arterial occlusion, and endophthalmitis. Cases were reviewed in detail by ≥2 readers, then adjudicated by the SRC as a group. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Within this patient subset: incidence of IOI, signs and incidence of retinal vasculitis and/or retinal vascular occlusion, and visual acuity loss; time since first brolucizumab injection to IOI event onset; and frequency of visual acuity loss after brolucizumab injection by time of first IOI event onset. RESULTS: Fifty brolucizumab-treated eyes were considered to have definite/probable drug-related events within the spectrum of IOI, retinal vasculitis, and/or vascular occlusion. On the basis of these cases, incidence of definite/probable IOI was 4.6% (IOI + vasculitis, 3.3%; IOI + vasculitis + occlusion, 2.1%). There were 8 cases (incidence 0.74%) of at least moderate visual acuity loss (≥15 ETDRS letters) in eyes with IOI (7 in eyes with IOI + vasculitis + occlusion). Of the 8 cases, 5 experienced their first IOI-related event within 3 months of the first brolucizumab injection (increasing to 7/8 within 6 months). Incidence of IOI in aflibercept-treated eyes was 1.1%, with at least moderate visual acuity loss in 0.14%. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of IOI cases after brolucizumab injection identified signs of retinal vasculitis with or without retinal vascular occlusion and an associated risk of visual acuity loss. The findings will help physicians to evaluate the risks and benefits of brolucizumab treatment for nAMD.

CLINICAL PREDICTORS OF TUBERCULAR RETINAL VASCULITIS IN A HIGH-ENDEMIC COUNTRY.

PURPOSE: To determine clinical signs suggestive of tubercular etiology in retinal vasculitis. METHODS: A retrospective comparative study of patients who presented with retinal vasculitis at three tertiary care centers in India. All patients underwent detailed clinical evaluation and tailored laboratory investigations for etiological diagnosis. Tubercular etiology was diagnosed on basis on the presence of retinal periphlebitis in association with ancillary evidence of systemic tuberculosis and exclusion of nontuberculosis entities. Patients with tubercular (Group A) and nontubercular (Group B) etiology were compared for demographic characteristics, supportive diagnostic evidence, and specific ocular signs. Statistical analysis was performed at 5% confidence levels. RESULTS: Of the 114 patients diagnosed with retinal vasculitis, Group A had 69 patients (100 eyes) and Group B had 45 patients (75 eyes). Active or healed subvascular lesions (P ≤ 0.0001), focal vascular tortuosity (P ≤ 0.0001), and occlusive vasculitis (P = 0.002) were significantly more common in Group A patients than in Group B patients. All three were independent predictors of tubercular etiology on multivariate regression analysis. CONCLUSION: The presence of healed or active subvascular lesions, focal vascular tortuosity, and occlusive vasculitis could be predictive of tubercular etiology in retinal vasculitis.

Epidemiology and clinical features of inflammatory retinal vascular occlusions: pooled data from two tertiary-referral institutions.

IMPORTANCE: In a subset of patients with retinal vasculitis, there is occlusion of blood flow through the retinal vessels. These eyes are at high risk of sight-threatening complications. BACKGROUND: To characterize epidemiology, clinical course, treatment and outcomes of occlusive retinal vasculitis (ORV). DESIGN: Retrospective study PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-seven uveitis patients with ORV at two large tertiary-care institutions (the USA and India). METHODS: Out of 2438 patients screened, 346 patients were diagnosed with retinal vasculitis of which 77 patients (96 eyes) were diagnosed with ORV. Patients with ORV (capillary, arteriolar and/or venular) were further analysed. Diagnostic criteria for occlusive vasculitis included (i) absence of blood flow in vessels (arterioles, venules and/or capillaries), (ii) capillary non-perfusion areas and/or arteriolar-venous anastomosis and (iii) intraretinal haemorrhages, cotton-wool spots or vitreous haemorrhage. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Best-corrected visual acuity, treatment and complications. RESULTS: The mean age was 32.09 ± 13.51 years. Most common aetiologies were tuberculosis and Adamantiades-Behçet's disease in India and systemic lupus erythematosus in the USA. Best-corrected visual acuity improved from 0.38 ± 0.30 logMAR (20/48 Snellen equivalent) (baseline) to 0.25 ± 0.30 (20/35 Snellen equivalent) at final visit (P < 0.0001). Vitreous haemorrhage was seen in 31.08% eyes. Pars plana vitrectomy was performed in 12.16% eyes. Therapy with systemic steroids was required in 78.48% patients. In addition, 46.75% patients required immunomodulators and/or biologics. CONCLUSIONS: Occlusive retinal vasculitis is caused by heterogeneous group of uveitides depending upon the geographic location. It is imperative to identify eyes with ORV as they are predisposed to complications requiring aggressive therapy.

PERIPHERAL RETINAL VASCULITIS: Analysis of 110 Consecutive Cases and a Contemporary Reappraisal of Tubercular Etiology.

PURPOSE: Describe the clinical features and outcomes of patients with peripheral retinal vasculitis (RV) and describe clinical characteristics of presumed tubercular RV in a nonendemic setting. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of 110 consecutive patients with peripheral RV at a tertiary referral eye care center in the United Kingdom. Retinal vasculitis was defined as RV with vitritis associated with peripheral retinal ischemia. Patients who also had positive Quantiferon Gold in Tube test, positive tuberculin skin test, and/or other evidence of systemic tuberculosis such as biopsy were labeled with presumed tubercular RV. Treatment success was defined as resolution of inflammation, and successful tapering of oral corticosteroids to less than 10 mg/day or topical steroids to less than twice a day. RESULTS: Mean age of the study population was 42.69 ± 14.95 years. Patients were predominantly Asian (49.1%) and Male (67.0%). A total of 73.2% had bilateral involvement. Sixty-nine (62.72%) patients had presumed tubercular RV. A total of 52.8% patients received antitubercular therapy, 65.5% received oral corticosteroids, and 17.3% required steroid-sparing oral immunosuppressive agents. A total of 85.19% of patients with presumed tubercular RV achieved treatment success with concurrent antitubercular therapy as against 75.61% of patients with nontubercular RV. CONCLUSION: This is the largest study of the epidemiology, clinical features, and outcomes of both peripheral RV and presumed tubercular RV to date. Presumed tubercular RV commonly seems to affect young males of Asian descent and had vitreous hemorrhage as common clinical findings and also demonstrated a good treatment outcome with antitubercular therapy.

A Comparative Study between Occlusive and Non-occlusive Retinal Vasculitis: Data from a Referral Center in Tunisia, North Africa.

PURPOSE: To compare clinical profile and visual outcomes of occlusive versus non-occlusive retinal vasculitis (RV). METHODS: A retrospective comparative study. RESULTS: 284 patients were enrolled, including 124 patients with occlusive RV (ORV) and 160 patients with non-occlusive RV (NORV). Patients with ORV were older (p ≤ 10-3), predominantly male (p ≤10-3), with less bilateral involvement (31.5% vs 53,4%; p ≤ 10-3). Infectious RV was more frequently diagnosed in the ORV group than in the NORV group (48.8% vs 32.9%, p = .006). Behçet disease and ocular tuberculosis were the leading causes of ORV. Idiopathic RV, Behçet disease, and sarcoidosis were the most common causes of NORV. Independent predictive factors of poor visual outcome were worse baseline visual acuity in both groups (p = .006 and p ≤ 10-3, respectively), and retinal hemorrhages (p = .048) and optic atrophy (p = .040) in the ORV group. CONCLUSION: Occlusive and non-occlusive RV have distinctive clinical and etiological profile.

Clinical and Epidemiological Profiles of Retinal Vasculitis in Northern Taiwan.

PURPOSE: To investigate the epidemiological and clinical profiles in retinal vasculitis in an Asian cohort. METHODS: A 5-year retrospective study of 487 uveitis patients in a tertiary referral center at northern Taiwan. RESULTS: Overall, 18.5% of the cases were associated with retinal vasculitis (RV). Sarcoidosis and cytomegalovirus retinitis were two leading diagnoses. Cases with RV were younger (mean: 39.7 years), less unilateral (50%), and had more chorioretinal involvement (95.5%). Definite diagnosis was reached in 86.7% of RV cases, of which 38.5% had infectious uveitis. While sole arteritis was presented in 8.9% of cases, 63.3% showed phlebitis, and 27.8% involved both. Three distinctive patterns were associated with a higher likelihood of infection: nodular sheathing, continuous perivascular sheathing (OR 4.79), and continuous fluorescein leakage (OR 4.11). CONCLUSION: The presence of RV, especially arteritis, is highly suggestive of identifiable etiology. Distinctive clinical patterns help differentiation of infectious versus noninfectious causes.

The Clinical Characteristics of Noninfectious Occlusive Retinal Vasculitis.

PURPOSE: To characterize the clinical features of occlusive retinal vasculitis (ORV). DESIGN: Retrospective case series. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-two patients with ORV. METHODS: A retrospective chart review identified all patients with ORV seen at the University of Colorado uveitis service between January 2013 and April 2020. All included patients demonstrated noninfectious uveitis and evidence of vascular occlusion in the presence of retinal vascular inflammation on widefield fluorescein angiography. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic data, visual acuity, clinical findings, and fluorescein angiography findings. RESULTS: We identified 73 eyes from 42 patients (15 men, 27 women) with ORV. Thirty-one of 42 patients had bilateral disease. Most eyes (54/73) showed mixed arteriolar and venous vasculitis compared with primarily arteriolar (6/73) or venous (15/73) vasculitis. Thirteen of 42 patients had an underlying systemic condition, most commonly granulomatosis with polyangiitis; however, bilaterality was not associated with a systemic condition. Retinal nonperfusion was present equally in zone 2 (28/73) and zone 3 (28/73) compared with zone 1 (16/73). Retinal or iris neovascularization was present in 25 of 73 eyes. Eighteen of 42 patients required more than 1 immunosuppressive medication (average, 1.33) to prevent progressive vascular occlusive disease. CONCLUSIONS: Occlusive retinal vasculitis is a heterogeneous entity with significant risk of visual impairment. Systemic disease was more prevalent in this specific cohort compared with cohorts from prior studies of retinal vasculitis.

Diagnostic Markers in Ocular Sarcoidosis in A High TB Endemic Population - A Multicentre Study.

AIM: To look at markers to differentiate ocular sarcoidosis from ocular tuberculosis in a high TB endemic population. MATERIALS & METHODS: Retrospective multicenter study involving seven tertiary eyecare centers in India between July 2016 to December 2016. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were retrieved from respective hospital databases. Group A included biopsy-proven ocular sarcoidosis while group B included ocular tuberculosis. RESULTS: Data from 2726 consecutive patients with uveitis were retrieved from the databases. Group A had 61 cases while group B included 307 cases. The mean age in group A was 43 ± 16.55 years while in group B was 38 ± 13.13 years. Females were more common in group A. Uveitis with low Schirmer test (OR-30, CI-95%), candlewax retinal vasculitis (OR-8.69, CI-95%), hilar lymphadenopathy (OR-15.23, CI-95%), fissural nodules (OR-39.11, CI-95%) had higher odds of having ocular sarcoidosis. CONCLUSION: Presence of dry eye, candlewax retinal vasculitis, hilar lymphadenopathy, and fissural nodules if present in a patient with uveitis, could help differentiate ocular sarcoidosis from ocular tuberculosis in a high TB endemic population.

IRVAN syndrome: A retrospective review of 9 cases from Tunisia.

PURPOSE: To describe clinical features, relevant imaging findings, disease course, and response to treatment in 9 patients (18 eyes) with idiopathic retinal vasculitis, aneurysms, and neuroretinitis (IRVAN) syndrome. METHODS: Retrospective review of the charts of nine patients (18 eyes) diagnosed with IRVAN syndrome at Fattouma Bourguiba University Hospital, Monastir, Tunisia, from January 1, 2011 to January 1, 2022. RESULTS: Nine patients were included with bilateral involvement in all cases. Mean initial best-corrected visual acuity (VA) was 20/32 (range, 20/1600-20/20). Clinical findings at presentation included vitreous cells (10 eyes, 55.6%), peripapillary exudates (12 eyes, 66.7%), partial or complete macular star (11 eyes, 61.1%), and vascular sheathing (11 eyes, 61.1%). Fluorescein angiography showed arteriolar aneurysms (18 eyes, 100%), areas of peripheral capillary non-perfusion (16 eyes, 88.9%), and retinal neovascularization (6 eyes, 33.3%). Optical coherence tomography showed macular edema in 5 eyes (27.8%). Optical coherence tomography angiography of the optic disc demonstrated papillary aneurysms in 4 eyes of 2 patients. Indocyanine green angiography showed retinal arteriolar aneurysmal dilatations in 4 eyes of 2 patients. Ten eyes (55.6%) had stage 2 disease, 6 eyes (33.3%) had stage 3, and 2 eyes (11.1%) had stage 1. Treatment modalities included peripheral photocoagulation (16 eyes, 88.9%), intravitreal bevacizumab (4 eyes, 22.2%), and intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide (1 eye, 5.6%). Mean final best-corrected VA was 20/32 (range, 20/600-20/20). Ocular complications included vitreous hemorrhage in 3 eyes (16.7%), branch retinal artery occlusion in 2 eyes (11.1%) and submacular fibrosis in 3 eyes (16.7%). CONCLUSION: IRVAN syndrome should be highly suspected in patients with peripapillary exudates associated with vascular sheathing and vitreous cells. Multimodal imaging confirms the diagnosis by showing retinal macroaneurysms. Early treatment of macular edema and/or peripheral retinal non-perfusion is mandatory to improve prognosis.

Impact of interleukin-6 promoter polymorphism and serum interleukin-6 level on the acute inflammation and neovascularization stages of patients with Eales' disease.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the inflammatory and proliferative stages of Eales' disease (ED) and to determine the influence of IL-6-174G/C polymorphism in the IL-6 and IL-6-regulated protein expression, as well as the development of ED. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-one patients diagnosed with ED, 223 matched healthy controls, and 16 control patients with macular holes were recruited from the eastern Indian population. Serum and vitreous levels of IL-6 and vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Serum levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) were measured by enzyme immunoassay. Subjects were genotyped for the IL-6-174G/C polymorphism (rs1800795) by a custom TaqMan single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) Genotyping Assays system. RESULTS: Serum IL-6 (p<0.0001), hsCRP (p<0.0001), and VEGF (p=0.0031) levels were significantly higher in the inflammatory stage of ED than in healthy controls. Serum IL-6 also significantly correlated with hsCRP (Spearman's correlation coefficient; r=0.4992, p=0.0009), but not with VEGF in this stage in ED patients. At the proliferative stage of ED, significantly higher levels of vitreous IL-6 (p=<0.0001) and VEGF (p=<0.0001) were found compared with the vitreous of patients with macular holes. A significant correlation was observed between vitreous IL-6 and VEGF in ED patients (Spearman's correlation coefficient; r=0.5834, p=0.0087). A statistically significant association was found between the -174GG genotype (p=0.006) and occurrence of ED. Mean serum and vitreous concentrations of IL-6 were also higher in the subjects with the GG genotype than in those with the GC or CC genotype in this population. CONCLUSIONS: IL-6 expression, regulated by the allelic distribution of -174 loci and the enhanced level of IL-6, modulates CRP and VEGF concentration depending respectively on the acute inflammatory stimulation at the initial stage and angiogenic stimulation at the advanced stage of ED.

Prognosis of Ocular Tuberculosis Following Long-Term Antitubercular Therapy.

Purpose: This study presents clinical features and prognosis after long-term (12-18 months) antitubercular therapy (ATT) in patients with ocular tuberculosis (OTB) in East China, an endemic area of tuberculosis. Methods: This retrospective study reviewed data from OTB patients treated at the Eye and ENT Hospital of Fudan University from 2008 to 2018. All the patients completed a minimum follow-up of 6 months after the cessation of ATT. Results: Sixty-six patients with OTB were studied. The ocular manifestations included retinal vasculitis (51.6%), choroiditis (24.2%), panuveitis (23.2%), intermediate uveitis (7.4%), scleritis (5.3%), anterior uveitis (2.1%), and optic neuropathy (1%). Except for two patients (ATT for 6 months), all other patients (64/66, 96.97%) received ATT for at least 12 months (6 patients for 12 months, 30 patients for 15 months, and 28 patients for 18 months). Treatment in conjunction with oral corticosteroids was used in 48 patients (72.7%). The average initial best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 0.8 ± 0.64 (LogMAR), which improved to 0.31 ± 0.35 (LogMAR) at the last follow-up (P < 0.05). The final BCVA was significantly associated with the initial BCVA and the duration of clinical symptoms. A complete remission of uveitis was achieved in 97% of the patients. Conclusions: This study observed a favorable prognosis with long-term ATT regimens. Patients with better baseline visual acuity and a shorter duration of clinical symptoms before diagnosis had a better prognosis.

Regional distinction for the clinical severity of Behçet's disease in Korea: four university-based medical centers study.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the clinical manifestations and severity of Behçet's disease (BD) in Korea according to geographic region of residence, and to identify risk factors associated with clinical severity. METHODS: We enrolled 246 BD patients (88 males) who fulfilled the criteria of the International Study Group for BD. These patients were assigned into two groups: a Western group comprising 127 residents in west regions and an Eastern group comprising 119 residents of the SoBaek Mountains situated in the center of Korea. Clinical severity was assessed using a severity scoring index of BD. RESULTS: BD patients from the Western group had a greater prevalence of typical skin lesions, deep vein thrombosis, gastrointestinal bleeding, posterior/ panuveitis, and retinal vasculitis than did the Eastern group (p<0.001, p=0.009, p=0.032, and p=0.007, respectively). The Western group also had higher severity scores than did the Eastern group (5.88±2.5 for the Western group vs. 4.94±2.6 for the Eastern group, p=0.004). Male BD patients had higher severity scores than did female patients (6.14±2.8 vs. 5.03±2.4, p=0.001). The disease duration of BD in the Western group showed a significant association with total severity scores (r=0231, p=0.009), but this was not observed for the Eastern group. CONCLUSIONS: We found distinct differences in the clinical manifestations as well as severity of BD according to geographic region in Korean BD patients. Males, particularly those from the Western region of Korea, had significantly higher severity scores than did females.

Resurgence of ocular syphilis in British Columbia between 2013-2016: a retrospective chart review.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the trends and explore the demographics, ophthalmic manifestations, and outcomes of ocular syphilis cases in British Columbia. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. PARTICIPANTS: Ocular syphilis cases reported to the British Columbia Centre for Disease Control (BCCDC) between January 2013 and December 2016. METHODS: The demographic and clinical data were extracted from the BCCDC's centralized sexually transmitted infection database and the ophthalmologists' clinical charts. RESULTS: There was a steady increase in the rate of syphilis infection per 100 000 population, from 3.4 in 2010 to 18.4 in 2018. There were 39 ocular syphilis cases identified from January 2013 to December 2016. The median age was 50 years (interquartile range: 40-59.5 years); 82.1% were male and 51.3% were HIV positive. The clinical charts belonging to 32 patients were available for review, 14 of which (43.8%) presented with bilateral ocular complaints (46 affected eyes). The most commonly noted ocular presentations were uveitis (93.5%), including retinal vasculitis in 54.3%, and optic nerve involvement in 65.2% (which included papillitis, optic nerve swelling, or pallor). Panuveitis was the most frequent type of uveitis (52.2% of all eyes); 77.8% of affected eyes with best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) ≤20/50 on presentation had an improvement of 2 or more Snellen lines of visual acuity at their final assessment. At presentation, 37.0% of eyes had BCVA ≤20/200, which decreased to 17.1% at final assessment. CONCLUSION: Ocular syphilis, although rare, is on the rise globally and can result in serious ocular sequelae. A high index of suspicion is required for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Ocular involvement in Adamantiades-Behçet's disease in Berlin, Germany.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies demonstrate a prevalence of Adamantiades-Behçet's disease (ABD) in the range of 0.12-420 per 100,000 inhabitants, with the highest rates in Istanbul, Turkey, and the lowest rates in the USA. Ophthalmological data on the prevalence of ocular involvement are limited for ABD in Germany, because most epidemiological studies are based on rheumatological or dermatological data. Berlin is the city with the highest number of non-native German inhabitants, and its multi-ethnic character renders it uniquely appropriate for epidemiological studies on ABD. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed all ABD patients seen in our department since 1982. All patients fulfilled the criteria of the International Study Group for Behçet's Disease. We found 140 patients (63 female, 77 male), with a mean follow-up of 6.4 years (0.5-22 years). RESULTS: The mean age was 23 at the first manifestation and 32 when the full-blown disease was noted. The mean age at onset of ocular involvement was 30. Most of the patients were of Turkish (n = 73) or German (n = 34) origin. Fifty-six percent developed ocular involvement, which was the first manifestation in 8.6% and the second manifestation in 19.3% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: More than half the patients developed ocular involvement. The calculated prevalence of ocular involvement in ABD is 1.77/100,000 inhabitants for the municipality of Berlin.

[Sarcoidosis]. / Sarcoïdose.

Sarcoidosis is a systemic granulomatosis characterized by the formation of epithelioid and giant cell granulomas without caseous necrosis. To make the diagnosis, it is necessary to prove systemic granulomatosis involving at least two organs; but in practice, a combination of clinical, paraclinical and histologic findings is used. It affects predominantly women with a bimodal age distribution: 25-29years and 65-69years. The most commonly affected organs are the mediastinal lymphatic system, lungs, skin and eyes. Ophthalmological involvement is present in 20 to 50% of cases. The typical ocular presentation is that of granulomatous uveitis associated with venous retinal vasculitis and lesions of peripheral multifocal choroiditis. This ophthalmological presentation, although very evocative, is not always associated with systemic disease. The diagnosis of ocular sarcoidosis is then presumed in the absence of histological evidence. Algorithms combining ophthalmological and systemic signs have been proposed in cases of isolated uveitis. They make it possible to establish the diagnosis of ocular sarcoidosis with various levels of probability. The absence of significant granulomas on a systemic level during primary ocular involvement remains the main hypothesis to explain these diagnostic difficulties. Treatment is well described, as the uveitis of sarcoidosis is most often steroid responsive. In the case of corticosteroid-dependent uveitis, the first-line immunosuppressant remains methotrexate. The use of anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha is an interesting alternative in patients whose ocular sarcoidosis is refractory to conventional immunosuppressants.

Pattern of Retinal Vasculitis in an Egyptian Cohort.

Purpose: To describe the clinical experience with retinal vasculitis at 4 Egyptian tertiary eye centers. Methods: A multicenter retrospective chart review of all patients with retinal vasculitis encountered at 4 ocular inflammation referral clinics in Egypt between February 2013 and February 2018. Results: The study included 618 patients (327 males and 291 females). Of these, 284 patients had isolated retinal vasculitis, whereas 233 patients had an associated systemic inflammatory disease, the most frequent being Behçet's disease, followed by sarcoidosis. In 101 patients, retinal vasculitis could be attributed to an infectious etiology, and among this category, the most common was tuberculosis, followed by toxoplasmosis. Conclusion: In our Egyptian cohort, more than half the patients had their retinal vasculitis as part of a serious systemic disease, or as part of an infectious process, as tuberculosis. And in view of the significant potential morbidity of these conditions, the local ophthalmologists need to be aware of these entities when faced with patients presenting with retinal vasculitis.

Eye and Behçet's disease.

Behçet's disease is a chronic multisystem disorder characterized by relapsing inflammation for which the underlying histopathology is an occlusive vasculitis. The disease has a high prevalence in the Mediterranean region, Far and Middle Eastern countries. It is clinically characterized by oral and genital ulcerations, ocular inflammatory involvement, skin lesions, vascular involvement and numerous other systemic manifestations. Uveitis is by far the most common ocular manifestation of Behçet's disease. It typically presents in the form of relapsing-remitting panuveitis with retinal vasculitis that may result in severe visual loss. Management of Behçet's uveitis relies on corticosteroid therapy, conventional immunosuppressive drugs and biological agents and requires a close collaboration between ophthalmologist and internist. A better understanding of auto-inflammatory process and of the role of cytokines implicated in the pathogenesis of Behçet's disease will enable researchers to develop more specific and effective therapy.

Ocular manifestations in tuberculosis cases with HIV in Nepal.

INTRODUCTION: TB has seen resurgence associated with HIV. Tuberculosis can affect any ocular tissue. The association of HIV with TB is supposed to increase the incidence and plethora of ocular manifestations in tuberculosis. OBJECTIVES: To study the various ocular manifestations seen in tuberculosis patients with associated HIV infection. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This hospital based, cross sectional descriptive study was conducted in Tribhuvan University, Teaching Hospital, Maharajgunj, Nepal and Geta Eye Hospital, Kailali from 2010 to 2015. Diagnosed cases of pulmonary and extra pulmonary tuberculosis with HIV co infection were evaluated for ocular manifestations after excluding other opportunistic infections. RESULTS: Of 70 cases eligible for the study, extra pulmonary tuberculosis was seen in60% of the cases. 5 patients (7.1 %) had ocular manifestations. CD4 counts were <50/mm3 in 3 cases. Ocular involvement was seen in the form of choroidal granulomas, papillitis, cranial nerve palsy, retinal vasculitis and central serous chorioretinopathy. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that ocular involvement is a frequent finding in cases with tuberculosis and HIV. Ocular findings are more common in cases with lesser CD4 counts. As ocular tuberculosis can be visually devastating, we recommend regular ocular evaluation of all patients with HIV and systemic tuberculosis.

Hyperhomocysteinemia and retinal vascular changes in patients with epilepsy.

The possible occurrence of asymptomatic retinal vascular damage was investigated in 87 hyperhomocysteinemic (plasma total homocysteine >13micromol/L) adult epileptic patients (46 M, 41 F; age 34.2+/-7.5 years; mean plasma homocysteine levels 29.8+/-15.4micromol/L; duration of epilepsy 11.5+/-2.4 years) with no other risk factors for atherosclerosis. Plasma total homocysteine (t-Hcy) levels were assayed by high performance liquid chromatography. Retina vascular status was assessed by fundus oculi ophthalmoscopy performed in blind conditions by two skilled ophthalmologists and compared with that obtained from 102 randomly chosen epileptic patients and 94 healthy subjects, matched for age and sex, showing normal t-Hcy levels. No retina abnormality was detected in any of the subjects belonging to the three groups. Based on these results, we conclude that epileptic patients with mild to intermediate hyperhomocysteinemia are not at risk to develop retinal vascular disease.