Tissue fluidification promotes a cGAS-STING cytosolic DNA response in invasive breast cancer.

The process in which locally confined epithelial malignancies progressively evolve into invasive cancers is often promoted by unjamming, a phase transition from a solid-like to a liquid-like state, which occurs in various tissues. Whether this tissue-level mechanical transition impacts phenotypes during carcinoma progression remains unclear. Here we report that the large fluctuations in cell density that accompany unjamming result in repeated mechanical deformations of cells and nuclei. This triggers a cellular mechano-protective mechanism involving an increase in nuclear size and rigidity, heterochromatin redistribution and remodelling of the perinuclear actin architecture into actin rings. The chronic strains and stresses associated with unjamming together with the reduction of Lamin B1 levels eventually result in DNA damage and nuclear envelope ruptures, with the release of cytosolic DNA that activates a cGAS-STING (cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-signalling adaptor stimulator of interferon genes)-dependent cytosolic DNA response gene program. This mechanically driven transcriptional rewiring ultimately alters the cell state, with the emergence of malignant traits, including epithelial-to-mesenchymal plasticity phenotypes and chemoresistance in invasive breast carcinoma.

Termination of cell-type specification gene programs by the miR-183 cluster determines the population sizes of low-threshold mechanosensitive neurons.

Touch and mechanical sensations require the development of several different kinds of sensory neurons dedicated to respond to certain types of mechanical stimuli. The transcription factor Shox2 (short stature homeobox 2) is involved in the generation of TRKB+ low-threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs), but mechanisms terminating this program and allowing alternative fates are unknown. Here, we show that the conditional loss of the miR-183-96-182 cluster in mouse leads to a failure of extinction of Shox2 during development and an increase in the proportion of Aδ LTMRs (TRKB+/NECAB2+) neurons at the expense of Aß slowly adapting (SA)-LTMRs (TRKC+/Runx3-) neurons. Conversely, overexpression of miR-183 cluster that represses Shox2 expression, or loss of Shox2, both increase the Aß SA-LTMRs population at the expense of Aδ LTMRs. Our results suggest that the miR-183 cluster determines the timing of Shox2 expression by direct targeting during development, and through this determines the population sizes of Aδ LTMRs and Aß SA-LTMRs.

A tripartite organelle platform links growth factor receptor signaling to mitochondrial metabolism.

One open question in the biology of growth factor receptors is how a quantitative input (i.e., ligand concentration) is decoded by the cell to produce specific response(s). Here, we show that an EGFR endocytic mechanism, non-clathrin endocytosis (NCE), which is activated only at high ligand concentrations and targets receptor to degradation, requires a tripartite organelle platform involving the plasma membrane (PM), endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. At these contact sites, EGFR-dependent, ER-generated Ca2+ oscillations are sensed by mitochondria, leading to increased metabolism and ATP production. Locally released ATP is required for cortical actin remodeling and EGFR-NCE vesicle fission. The same biochemical circuitry is also needed for an effector function of EGFR, i.e., collective motility. The multiorganelle signaling platform herein described mediates direct communication between EGFR signaling and mitochondrial metabolism, and is predicted to have a broad impact on cell physiology as it is activated by another growth factor receptor, HGFR/MET.

The transcription factor Cux2 marks development of an A-delta sublineage of TrkA sensory neurons.

The developmental process and unique molecular identity between the many different types of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) sensory neurons generated during embryogenesis provide the cellular basis for the distinct perceptual modalities of somatosensation. The mechanisms leading to the generation of different types of nociceptive sensory neurons remain only partly understood. Here, we show that the transcription factor Cux2 is a novel marker of sensory neuron subpopulations of three main sublineages as defined by the expression of neurotrophic factor receptors TrkA, TrkB and TrkC. In particular, it is expressed in a subpopulation of early TrkA(+) neurons that arise during the early, Ngn1-independent initiated neurogenesis in the DRG. Postnatally, Cux2 marks a specific subtype of A-delta nociceptors as seen by expression of TrkA and NF200 but absence of TrpV1. Analysis of Cux2 mutant mice shows that Cux2 is not required for specification of Trk(+) neuronal subpopulations. However, Cux2 mutant mice are hypersensitive to mechanical, but not to heat or cold stimuli, consistent with a requirement in the process of specification of the mechanoreceptive neuron circuit. Hence, our results show that Cux2 is expressed and may participate in development of a specific subtype of myelinated TrkA(+) nociceptors.

The omega-6 fatty acid derivative 15-deoxy-Δ¹²,¹4-prostaglandin J2 is involved in neuroprotection by enteric glial cells against oxidative stress.

Increasing evidence suggests that enteric glial cells (EGCs) are critical for enteric neuron survival and functions. In particular, EGCs exert direct neuroprotective effects mediated in part by the release of glutathione. However, other glial factors such as those identified as regulating the intestinal epithelial barrier and in particular the omega-6 fatty acid derivative 15-deoxy-Δ¹²,¹4-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) could also be involved in EGC-mediated neuroprotection. Therefore, our study aimed to assess the putative role of EGC-derived 15d-PGJ2 in their neuroprotective effects. We first showed that pretreatment of primary cultures of enteric nervous system(ENS)or humann euroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y)with 15d-PGJ2 dose dependently prevented hydrogen peroxide neurotoxicity. Furthermore, neuroprotective effects of EGCs were significantly inhibited following genetic invalidation in EGCs of the key enzyme involved in 15d-PGJ2 synthesis, i.e. L-PGDS. We next showed that 15d-PGJ2 effects were mediated by an Nrf2 dependent pathway but were not blocked by PPARγ inhibitor (GW9662) in SH-SY5Y cells and enteric neurons. Finally, 15d-PGJ2 induced a significant increase in glutamate cysteine ligase expression and intracellular glutathione in SH cells and enteric neurons. In conclusion, we identified 15d-PGJ2 as a novel glial-derived molecule with neuroprotective effects in the ENS. This study further supports the concept that omega-6 derivatives such as 15d-PGJ2 might be used in preventive and/or therapeutic strategies for the treatment of enteric neuropathies.

Enteric glia and neuroprotection: basic and clinical aspects.

The enteric nervous system (ENS), a major regulatory system for gastrointestinal function, is composed of neurons and enteric glial cells (EGCs). Enteric glia have long been thought to provide only structural support to neurons. However, recent evidence indicates enteric glia-neuron cross talk significantly contributes to neuronal maintenance, survival, and function. Thus damage to EGCs may trigger neurodegenerative processes thought to play a role in gastrointestinal dysfunctions and symptoms. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on EGCs, particularly focusing on their possible neuroprotective features and the resultant enteric neuron abnormalities subsequent to EGC damage. These neuroprotective mechanisms may have pathogenetic relevance in a variety of functional and inflammatory gut diseases. Basic and clinical (translational) studies support a neuroprotective role mediated by EGCs. Different models have been developed to test whether selective EGC damage/ablation has an impact on gut functions and the ENS. Preclinical data indicated that selective EGC alterations were associated with changes in gut physiology related to enteric neuron abnormalities. In humans, a substantial loss of EGCs was described in patients with various functional and/or inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases. However, whether EGC changes precede or follow neuronal degeneration and loss and how this damage occurs is not defined. Additional studies on EGC neuroprotective capacity are expected to improve knowledge of gut diseases and pave the way for targeted therapeutic strategies of underlying neuropathies.

Dependence on the transcription factor Shox2 for specification of sensory neurons conveying discriminative touch.

Touch sensation is mediated by specific subtypes of sensory neurons which develop in a hierarchical process from common early progenitor neurons, but the molecular mechanism that underlies diversification of touch-sensitive mechanoreceptive neurons is not fully known. Here, we use genetically manipulated mice to examine whether the transcription factor short stature homeobox 2 (Shox2) participates in the acquisition of neuronal subtypes conveying touch sensation. We show that Shox2 encodes the development of category I low-threshold mechanoreceptive neurons in glabrous skin, i.e. discriminative touch-sensitive neurons which form innervations of epidermal Merkel cell and Meissner corpuscles. In contrast, other sensory fiber endings, including those innervating Pacinian corpuscles, are not dependent on Shox2. Shox2 is expressed in neurons of most or all classes of sensory neurons at early embryonic stages and is later confined to touch-sensitive neurons expressing Ret and/or TrkB. Conditional deletion of Shox2 and analysis of Runx3(-/-);Bax(-/-) mutant mice reveals that Runx3 is suppressing Shox2 while Shox2 is necessary for TrkB expression, and that these interactions are necessary for diversification of TrkB(+) and TrkC(+) mechanoreceptive neurons. In particular, development of TrkB(+)/Ret(+) and TrkB(+)/Ret(-) touch-sensitive neurons is critically dependent on Shox2. Consistently, Shox2 conditional mutant mice demonstrate a dramatic impairment of light touch responses. These results show that Shox2 is required for specification of a subclass of TrkB(+) sensory neurons which convey the sensation of discriminative touch arising from stimuli of the skin.

Enteric glial cells protect neurons from oxidative stress in part via reduced glutathione.

Enteric glial cells (EGCs) are essential in the control of gastrointestinal functions. Although lesions of EGCs are associated with neuronal degeneration in animal models, their direct neuroprotective role remains unknown. Therefore, the aims of this study were to demonstrate the direct neuroprotective effects of EGCs and to identify putative glial mediators involved. First, viral targeted ablation of EGCs in primary cultures of enteric nervous system increased neuronal death both under basal conditions and in the presence of oxidative stress (dopamine, hydrogen peroxide). Second, direct or indirect coculture experiments of EGC lines with primary cultures of enteric nervous system or neuroblastoma cell lines (SH-SY5Y) prevented neurotoxic effects induced by oxidative stress (increased membrane permeability, release of neuronal specific enolase, caspase-3 immunoreactivity, changes in [Ca(2+)](i) response). Finally, combining pharmacological inhibition and mRNA silencing methods, we demonstrated that neuroprotective effects of EGCs were mediated in part by reduced glutathione but not by oxidized glutathione or by S-nitrosoglutathione. Our study identified the neuroprotective effects of EGCs via their release of reduced glutathione, extending their critical role in physiological contexts and in enteric neuropathies.-Abdo, H., Derkinderen, P., Gomes, P., Chevalier, J., Aubert, P., Masson, D., Galmiche, J.-P., Vanden Berghe, P., Neunlist, M., Lardeux, B. Enteric glial cells protect neurons from oxidative stress in part via reduced glutathione.

Enteric glia modulate epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation through 15-deoxy-12,14-prostaglandin J2.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) and its major component, enteric glial cells (EGCs), have recently been identified as a major regulator of intestinal epithelial barrier functions. Indeed, EGCs inhibit intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) proliferation and increase barrier resistance and IEC adhesion via the release of EGC-derived soluble factors. Interestingly, EGC regulation of intestinal epithelial barrier functions is reminiscent of previously reported peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma)-dependent functional effects. In this context, the present study aimed at identifying whether EGC could synthesize and release the main PPARgamma ligand, 15-deoxy-(12,14)-prostaglandin J2 (15dPGJ2), and regulate IEC functions such as proliferation and differentiation via a PPARgamma dependent pathway. First, we demonstrated that the lipocalin but not the haematopoetic form for prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS), the enzyme responsible of 15dPGJ2 synthesis, was expressed in EGCs of the human submucosal plexus and of the subepithelium, as well as in rat primary culture of ENS and EGC lines. Next, 15dPGJ2 was identified in EGC supernatants of various EGC lines. 15dPGJ2 reproduced EGC inhibitory effects upon IEC proliferation, and inhibition of lipocalin PGDS expression by shRNA abrogated these effects. Furthermore, EGCs induced nuclear translocation of PPARgamma in IEC, and both EGC and 15dPGJ2 effects upon IEC proliferation were prevented by the PPARgamma antagonist GW9662. Finally, EGC induced differentiation-related gene expression in IEC through a PPARgamma-dependent pathway. Our results identified 15dPGJ2 as a novel glial-derived mediator involved in the control of IEC proliferation/differentiation through activation of PPARgamma. They also suggest that alterations of glial PGDS expression may modify intestinal epithelial barrier functions and be involved in the development of pathologies such as cancer or inflammatory bowel diseases.

Neuroplasticity and neuroprotection in enteric neurons: role of epithelial cells.

Neurons of enteric nervous system (ENS) regulate intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) functions but whether IEC can impact upon the neurochemical coding and survival of enteric neurons remain unknown. Neuro-epithelial interactions were studied using a coculture model composed of IEC lines and primary culture of rat ENS or human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y). Neurochemical coding of enteric neurons was analysed by immunohistochemistry and quantitative PCR. Neuroprotective effects of IEC were tested by measuring neuron specific enolase (NSE) release or cell permeability to 7-amino-actinomycin D (7-AAD). Following coculture with IEC, the percentage of VIP-immunoreactive (IR) neurons but not NOS-IR and VIP mRNA expression were significantly increased. IEC significantly reduced dopamine-induced NSE release and 7-AAD permeability in culture of ENS and SH-SY5Y, respectively. Finally, we showed that NGF had neuroprotective effects but reduced VIP expression in enteric neurons. In conclusion, our study identified a novel role for IEC in the regulation of enteric neuronal properties.

Specialized cutaneous Schwann cells initiate pain sensation.

An essential prerequisite for the survival of an organism is the ability to detect and respond to aversive stimuli. Current belief is that noxious stimuli directly activate nociceptive sensory nerve endings in the skin. We discovered a specialized cutaneous glial cell type with extensive processes forming a mesh-like network in the subepidermal border of the skin that conveys noxious thermal and mechanical sensitivity. We demonstrate a direct excitatory functional connection to sensory neurons and provide evidence of a previously unknown organ that has an essential physiological role in sensing noxious stimuli. Thus, these glial cells, which are intimately associated with unmyelinated nociceptive nerves, are inherently mechanosensitive and transmit nociceptive information to the nerve.

Signals from the brain and olfactory epithelium control shaping of the mammalian nasal capsule cartilage.

Facial shape is the basis for facial recognition and categorization. Facial features reflect the underlying geometry of the skeletal structures. Here, we reveal that cartilaginous nasal capsule (corresponding to upper jaw and face) is shaped by signals generated by neural structures: brain and olfactory epithelium. Brain-derived Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) enables the induction of nasal septum and posterior nasal capsule, whereas the formation of a capsule roof is controlled by signals from the olfactory epithelium. Unexpectedly, the cartilage of the nasal capsule turned out to be important for shaping membranous facial bones during development. This suggests that conserved neurosensory structures could benefit from protection and have evolved signals inducing cranial cartilages encasing them. Experiments with mutant mice revealed that the genomic regulatory regions controlling production of SHH in the nervous system contribute to facial cartilage morphogenesis, which might be a mechanism responsible for the adaptive evolution of animal faces and snouts.

miR-183 cluster scales mechanical pain sensitivity by regulating basal and neuropathic pain genes.

Nociception is protective and prevents tissue damage but can also facilitate chronic pain. Whether a general principle governs these two types of pain is unknown. Here, we show that both basal mechanical and neuropathic pain are controlled by the microRNA-183 (miR-183) cluster in mice. This single cluster controls more than 80% of neuropathic pain-regulated genes and scales basal mechanical sensitivity and mechanical allodynia by regulating auxiliary voltage-gated calcium channel subunits α2δ-1 and α2δ-2. Basal sensitivity is controlled in nociceptors, and allodynia involves TrkB+ light-touch mechanoreceptors. These light-touch-sensitive neurons, which normally do not elicit pain, produce pain during neuropathy that is reversed by gabapentin. Thus, a single microRNA cluster continuously scales acute noxious mechanical sensitivity in nociceptive neurons and suppresses neuropathic pain transduction in a specific, light-touch-sensitive neuronal type recruited during mechanical allodynia.

Multipotent peripheral glial cells generate neuroendocrine cells of the adrenal medulla.

Adrenaline is a fundamental circulating hormone for bodily responses to internal and external stressors. Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla (AM) represent the main neuroendocrine adrenergic component and are believed to differentiate from neural crest cells. We demonstrate that large numbers of chromaffin cells arise from peripheral glial stem cells, termed Schwann cell precursors (SCPs). SCPs migrate along the visceral motor nerve to the vicinity of the forming adrenal gland, where they detach from the nerve and form postsynaptic neuroendocrine chromaffin cells. An intricate molecular logic drives two sequential phases of gene expression, one unique for a distinct transient cellular state and another for cell type specification. Subsequently, these programs down-regulate SCP-gene and up-regulate chromaffin cell-gene networks. The AM forms through limited cell expansion and requires the recruitment of numerous SCPs. Thus, peripheral nerves serve as a stem cell niche for neuroendocrine system development.

Visceral motor neuron diversity delineates a cellular basis for nipple- and pilo-erection muscle control.

Despite the variety of physiological and target-related functions, little is known regarding the cellular complexity in the sympathetic ganglion. We explored the heterogeneity of mouse stellate and thoracic ganglia and found an unexpected variety of cell types. We identified specialized populations of nipple- and pilo-erector muscle neurons. These neurons extended axonal projections and were born among other neurons during embryogenesis, but remained unspecialized until target organogenesis occurred postnatally. Target innervation and cell-type specification was coordinated by an intricate acquisition of unique combinations of growth factor receptors and the initiation of expression of concomitant ligands by the nascent erector muscles. Overall, our results provide compelling evidence for a highly sophisticated organization of the sympathetic nervous system into discrete outflow channels that project to well-defined target tissues and offer mechanistic insight into how diversity and connectivity are established during development.

Unbiased classification of sensory neuron types by large-scale single-cell RNA sequencing.

The primary sensory system requires the integrated function of multiple cell types, although its full complexity remains unclear. We used comprehensive transcriptome analysis of 622 single mouse neurons to classify them in an unbiased manner, independent of any a priori knowledge of sensory subtypes. Our results reveal eleven types: three distinct low-threshold mechanoreceptive neurons, two proprioceptive, and six principal types of thermosensitive, itch sensitive, type C low-threshold mechanosensitive and nociceptive neurons with markedly different molecular and operational properties. Confirming previously anticipated major neuronal types, our results also classify and provide markers for new, functionally distinct subtypes. For example, our results suggest that itching during inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis is linked to a distinct itch-generating type. We demonstrate single-cell RNA-seq as an effective strategy for dissecting sensory responsive cells into distinct neuronal types. The resulting catalog illustrates the diversity of sensory types and the cellular complexity underlying somatic sensation.