Hospital care direct costs due to ambulatory care sensitive conditions related to diabetes mellitus in the Mexican public healthcare system.

BACKGROUND: Hospitalizations for ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSC) incur substantial costs on the health system that could be partially avoided with adequate outpatient care. Complications of chronic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), are considered ACSC. Previous studies have shown that hospitalizations due to diabetes have a significant financial burden. In Mexico, DM is a major health concern and a leading cause of death, but there is limited evidence available. This study aimed to estimate the direct costs of hospitalizations by DM-related ACSC in the Mexican public health system. METHODS: We selected three hospitals from each of Mexico's main public institutions: the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), the Ministry of Health (MoH), and the Institute of Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE). We employed a bottom-up microcosting approach from the healthcare provider perspective to estimate the total direct costs of hospitalizations for DM-related ACSC. Input data regarding length of stay (LoS), consultations, medications, colloid/crystalloid solutions, procedures, and laboratory/medical imaging studies were obtained from clinical records of a random sample of 532 hospitalizations out of a total of 1,803 DM-related ACSC (ICD-10 codes) discharges during 2016. RESULTS: The average cost per DM-related ACSC hospitalization varies among institutions, ranging from $1,427 in the MoH to $1,677 in the IMSS and $1,754 in the ISSSTE. The three institutions' largest expenses are LoS and procedures. Peripheral circulatory and renal complications were the major drivers of hospitalization costs for patients with DM-related ACSC. Direct costs due to hospitalizations for DM-related ACSC in these three institutions represent 1% of the gross domestic product (GDP) dedicated to health and social services and 2% of total hospital care expenses. CONCLUSIONS: The direct costs of hospitalizations for DM-related ACSC vary considerably across institutions. Disparities in such costs for the same ACSC among different institutions suggest potential disparities in care quality across primary and hospital settings (processes and resource utilization), which should be further investigated to ensure optimal supply utilization. Prioritizing preventive measures for peripheral circulatory and renal complications in DM patients could be highly beneficial.

[Practice guideline. Diagnosis and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2.

Our objective was to develop a guide based on the best available evidence that allow family physicians to establish criteria for screening, diagnosis, prevention, treatment of disease, early detection and management of complications; to standardize the organizing processes of the diabetic patient's care in the primary care level; and to achieve lifestyle modification for patients and promote self-care. Clinical questions were stated according to the diagram and structured patient-intervention-comparison-outcome. We used a mixed methodology-adoption adjustment, and include 32 guides. For recommendations not included in these, the search process was conducted in PubMed and Cochrane Library Plus with these terms: diabetes mellitus type 2, epidemiology, detection and diagnosis, classification, drug therapy, effects, prevention, control and complication. The clinical practice guideline emphasizes the fundamental change in lifestyle (diet and exercise), self-care and proactive participation of the patient, in addition to the dynamic prescription of medications that would achieve metabolic control in order to reduce late complications.

[Perspective on type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social]. / Perspectiva de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social.

The Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social--always sensitive to the needs of health of the beneficiary population and to the demographic and epidemiological changes of the society--has developed and implemented DiabetlMSS, a program of attention to the diabetic patient. DiabetlMSS organizes care processes based on the needs and values of the patients, through simultaneous activities of individual consultation and group meetings granted by the multidisciplinary health team. These actions and activities are focused to affect patients' lifestyles positively. Through a plan of nutrition, physical activity, self-care and monitoring, this program increases the interaction between patients, by having an exchange of successful experiences about diabetes control. DiabetlMSS was created with the purpose that the patients achieve the metabolic control and identify complications early on, with the perspective of timely intervention that is reflected in the decrease of the catastrophic effects that causes the disease, both for patient's life expectancy and the quality of care provided by the Institute.

[Clinical practice guideline. Traumatic urethral stenosis in males]. / Guía de práctica clínica. La estenosis de uretra postraumática en el hombre.

The incidence of urethral stenosis in Mexico had not been documented. At the Centro Médico Nacional La Raza, during the year 2010, 629 patients with urethral stenosis were attended as outpatient consultation: 85 % with previous urethral stenosis and 15 % with urethral treatment complication. Urethral stenosis is a chronic illness, with multiple etiological origins and the handling is controversial. It has a great negative impact for the patients and the recurrence reaches 85 %. The treatment consisted of an invasive approach (urethral dilations, endoscopy procedure) and open surgery (urethroplasty). The World Health Organization and World Alliance take the world challenge about the urinary tract infections associated with the attention of patients, focused on urethral stenosis. The objective of the following clinical guide is to offer to the health professional a clinical tool for making decisions in the handling of the hardship or masculine urethral stenosis, based on the best available evidence, carrying out in systematized form with bibliographical research using validated terms of the MeSH: urethral structures, in the databases Trip database, PubMed, Guideline Clearinghouse, Cochrane Library and Ovid.

En México no está documentada la incidencia de la estenosis de uretra en forma consistente. En 2010, en el Centro Médico Nacional La Raza se reportaron 629 pacientes en consulta externa, 85 % de uretra anterior y 15 % de uretra posterior. La estenosis uretral es una enfermedad crónica, de etiología variada y manejo controvertido, con gran impacto negativo para los pacientes y recurrencia hasta de 85 %. El tratamiento puede ser instrumentado (dilataciones, cirugía endoscópica) y por cirugía abierta (uretroplastia). La Organización Mundial de la Salud y Alianza Mundial la consideran un reto de la atención de la salud. El objetivo de la siguiente guía es ofrecer al profesional de la salud, una herramienta clínica para la toma de decisiones en la atención de la estenosis uretral masculina, basada en la mejor evidencia identificada mediante la búsqueda bibliográfica sistematizada en las bases de datos Tripdatabase, PubMed, Guideline Clearinghouse, Cochrane Library y Ovid.

[Social support in the rehabilitation of patients with disabilities due to stroke]. / La discapacidad por enfermedad vascular cerebral. Apoyo social para la rehabilitación.

OBJECTIVE: to describe a strategy of social support in the recovery of functional capacity on basic activities of daily living (ADL), quality of life and ways to face stress in patients after a stroke. METHODS: patients (56) with stroke, were integrated in support groups during the three months of rehabilitation. Outcomes were assessed through the Barthel Index, SF-36 questionnaire, and the Lazarus-Folkman measure. RESULTS: there was an improvement in functional capacity, with an increase in the emotional support (p = 0.0191) and affectivity (p = 0.0085). There was no change in caregiver. In quality of life 13.3 % of patients met the floor values in the dimension of physical function, 40 % in physical role and emotional role 36.7%. The most frequently used facing strategy in patients and caregivers were magical thinking that led a positive facing in the area of passive facing or directed to emotion; while in active facing or directed to the problem more flexibility in the addressed problem was used. CONCLUSIONS: the social support strategies in the rehabilitation of patients with stroke reflected an improvement on functional recovery, and quality of life.

[Obstetrical hemorrhage as a maternal death cause in the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social during 2011]. / Hemorragia obstétrica, causa de muerte materna. IMSS, 2011.

OBJECTIVE: to describe the clinical data associated to maternal deaths due to fetomaternal bleeding. METHODS: we analyzed 32 of 135 cases of maternal deaths that occurred in the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) during 2011. The main inclusion feature was the presence of severe hemorrhage during pregnancy, childbirth or puerperium. RESULTS: obstetric hemorrhage as the underlying cause of maternal death was presented in 65.6 % and in 34.4 % severe obstetric hemorrhage occurred due to different underlying cause of maternal death. The age group with the highest maternal deaths by massive bleeding was the group of 30 to 39 years. The resolution of the pregnancy was by cesarean in most cases. The cases of placenta accrete and uterine atony were others maternal death causes. CONCLUSIONS: the massive bleeding during pregnancy, birth and/or postpartum continues as the second leading cause of maternal mortality in the IMSS. It is necessary to continue training for improving (the performance) in the management of the pregnancy woman with hemorrhage.

[Clinical guideline. Obstetrical hemorrhage in the second half of pregnancy]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Hemorragia obstétrica en la segunda mitad del embarazo.

Pregnancy at older ages and the increased frequency of caesarean births may increase the incidence of diseases associated with obstetric haemorrhage. Obstetric haemorrhage is the second leading cause of maternal mortality, preceded only by preeclampsia-eclampsia in Mexico and the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. In recent years several studies have been conducted to improve the detection, diagnosis and treatment of women at risk of obstetric haemorrhage to reduce maternal and perinatal mortality. The objective of this clinical practice guideline is defining recommendations based in the best available evidence to standardize actions regarding the diagnosis and management of obstetric haemorrhage in hospital units.

[Clinical guideline for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of ischemic cerebral disease]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Enfermedad vascular cerebral isquémica.

Stroke is considered a big public health problem in adults and older adults. Increased life expectancy is one of the greatest achievements of development; however it is also a great challenge because of the implications with regard to increasing chronic disease that it will lead complications such as stroke. Stroke is the leading cause of disability worldwide in adulthood and the second leading cause of dementia. In developing countries, it is estimated that the costs of care for stroke are from 6000 to 8000 euros, as well as the social costs of informal care and changes in family dynamics around patients. So the purpose of this clinical practice guideline is to define recommendations based on the best available evidence for the standardization of health care of patients with stroke.

[Diagnosis and treatment guideline for primary hypothyroidism in adulthood]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Diagnóstico y tratamiento del hipotiroidismo primario en adultos.

Our objective was to develop clinical guidelines based on the best clinical evidence to help the staff of medical setting of all levels (first, second and third medical attention levels) to provide evidence based care and diagnosis of hypothyroidism in adults nationwide. The guidelines were built using structured and relevant clinical questions. A strategy was developed to identify the main clinical guidelines for hypothyroidism in adult patient. The working group selected six documents. For aspects not considered in those documents, structured searches using Pubmed, Medical Disability Advisor, and Cochrane Library Plus were done. The results were qualified according its level of evidence and grade of recommendation. The diagnosis of hypothyroidism should be done precisely and without delay. Specialized care should be used rationally, using primary care units as the main resource for the treatment of hypothyroidism. This is the reason why the first primary care physicians should understand and apply a guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypothyroidism in adulthood.

[Clinical practice guideline: a complete geriatric evaluation]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Valoración geriátrica integral.

The care of elderly patients requires an evaluation that deserves a host of special considerations, such as biological aspects of aging, those related to activities of daily living and functionality, neuro-psychological conceptions, family dynamics and economic conditions. The growth of the aging population in our country is accompanied by an increase in chronic diseases and more individuals have greater vulnerability, requiring a more consumption of resources because of the high demand for services. This requires the incorporation of specialized care in the institutional system, which has caused serious consequences in the current health system, benefiting specialization and technology, but with a loss of an integrated and horizontal view of the patient. Therefore it is necessary to develop a practical tool that allows the family physician to identify and differentiate the geriatric population that requires specialized care from who does not, identifying problems that may improve and allow the design of strategies to improve health status and maintain functional autonomy of the elderly. Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) is a fundamental tool for clinical practice of any medical care to the elderly.

[A clinical practice guideline for diagnosis and treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica.

The World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000 considered that 274 million people died in the world because of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Global mortality by COPD depends on the stage of the disease and 30 to 48 % die during the next four to seven years after the diagnosis. The global burden of disease for the 2020 measurement through the years of potential life lost (YPLL) estimates that COPD is in the 10th place at world-wide level. The great variability in the care of the patients with COPD, as well as the increase in the number of patients with acute exacerbations makes necessary the development of a clinical practice guideline to standardize the treatment and the interventions of rehabilitation, nutrition in the three levels of health care with the objective to improve the quality of care and to promote the efficient use of the resources.

[Clinical guideline for diagnosis and treatment of the thromboembolic venous disease]. / Guía de práctica clínica. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de la enfermedad tromboembólica venosa.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a guideline on thrombosis in order to standardize the protocol of management, as a strategy for reducing the morbidity and mortality. METHODS: Clinical questions were formulated and structured. Standardized sequence was established to search for practice guidelines from the clinical questions raised on diagnosis and treatment of venous thrombosis. The working group selected clinical practice guidelines. We choose seven guidelines with the best recommendations. For recommendations not included in the referenced guides the search process was conducted in PubMed and Cochrane Library. The results were expressed as levels of evidence and grade of recommendation. CONCLUSIONS: Risk criteria and the correct diagnosis can be established to choose thromboprophylaxis strategy. This guide is a compilation and an analysis of international guidelines, that meta-analysis and review articles on thrombosis that makes available to medical staff recommendations based on evidence to make decisions, standardized diagnostic and treatment to reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with venous thrombosis.

Avoidable Hospitalization Trends From Ambulatory Care-Sensitive Conditions in the Public Health System in México.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate and identify the variations in rates of Avoidable Hospitalization for Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions (AH-ACSC) in public institutions of the Mexican health system during the period 2010-2017. METHODS: Secondary analysis of the hospital discharge database of the Ministry of Health (MoH) from 2010 to 2017. AH for ACSC was calculated by age group and sex per 100,000. Variations per year between institutions were calculated with the extreme quotient (EQ), coefficient of variation (CV) and systematic component of variance (SCV). Adjusted AH rates were calculated by group of causes (acute, chronic and preventable by vaccination). Adjusted AH trend rates were analyzed by Join Point Regression. RESULTS: For the period 2010-2017, the number of AH for ACSC decreased from 676,705 to 612,897, going from almost 13% to 10.7% of hospital discharges. There is consistency in terms of relative variance magnitude. But, with regards to SCV, the change remained constant, and in a second period of 2015-2017, high variation was observed by SCV ≥ 3. All-cause AH is diminishing in all institutions. AH rates for diabetes are the highest, but like other chronic diseases, there was a decline in the period from 2010 to 2017. The relative reduction varied from 15% for heart failure to 38% for complications from diabetes or hypertension, to 75% for angina. CONCLUSIONS: AH for ACSC is an indirect indicator of quality and access to first-level care. Variations by institutions are observed. This variation in CV and SCV across subsystems and states may be due to inequities in the provision of services. The factors that contribute to the burden of AH for ACSC in the Mexican Health System require detailed analysis.

[Epidemiological pattern of breast cancer mortality in Mexico State]. / Patrón epidemiológico de la mortalidad por cáncer de mama en el Estado de México.

BACKGROUND: breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of death secondary to malignancy in women. It ranks third in mortality in women in reproductive age, produced by non-modifiable (genetic and hormonal) and modifiable factors. Our objective was to describe and analyze the epidemiological characteristics of deaths from BC in the State of Mexico. RESULTS: of 273 verbal autopsies, the most common age (23.07 %) was between 40 and 49 years. The educational level of schooling were complete elementary school (20.51 %), incomplete elementary school (19.04 %) and complete high school (13.91 %). the institution with the highest number of patients was the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social with 139 (50.91 %). The towns with a higher frequency were Malinalco, Ayapango, Atizapán, Zacualpan and Apaxco. The Mortality was higher in Valle de Bravo, Coatepec Harinas and Toluca. CONCLUSIONS: the increase in BC has permitted the emergence of a new hypothesis known as endocrine disruption, according to this premise, this results from exposure to chemicals introduced into the environment by human activity capable of altering the hormonal balance.

[The clinical guidelines of practice project at the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social]. / Proyecto para el desarrollo de guías de práctica clínica en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social.

The advance in the knowledge and technology is growing quickly and greater quantity, so it is difficult for the health professional to access to whole information that is generated every day on diagnostic and therapeutic strategies more effective, so the clinic practice guidelines (CPG) is a resource to support the updating of the health professional and support them in making clinical decisions. The CPG is also a better support to the manager of health services in making decisions regarding the strategies that have performed for the patient and less risk to the individual and collective health. They also support the response capacity of the medical units and hospitals and guide the planning of services to the optimization of the resources. This paper summarizes the methodology of a national project for the development of GPC coordinated by the Mexican Social Security Institute with the collaboration of more than 1200 health professionals of the institution in a great effort institutional update and make information accessible to the entire health sector, which also defines the steps to upgrade and maintain the updating of knowledge and technology expressed in them.

Effectiveness of two rehabilitation strategies provided by nurses for stroke patients in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: Rehabilitation strategies have been developed to improve functional state in stroke patients. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the early rehabilitation at hospital and its continuity at home provided by nurses, on the functional recovery of basic and social activities in stroke patients compared with conventional care. DESIGN: A randomised clinical trial was carried out in three general hospitals of the Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS) in Mexico City between April 2003-May 2004. PARTICIPANTS: Stroke patients. METHODS: Two rehabilitation strategies provided by nurses for stroke patients were compared: physiotherapy plus caregiver education in rehabilitation (strategy 1, S1) vs. education alone (strategy 2, S2). The main outcome variables were the basic (Barthel index) and social (Frenchay activities index) activities of daily living, of each patient. Age, sex, morbidity, stroke symptoms, complications, neurological damage (Canadian Scale), cognitive state (mini-mental state examination questionnaire) and duration of hospitalisation were defined as the control variables. Patients were evaluated at baseline and months one, three and six thereafter. RESULTS: One hundred and ten patients with ischaemic stroke were enrolled and randomised; 59 were assigned to S1 and 51 to S2. Comparison of the outcome variables showed that patients improved significantly over time, but no differences were observed between groups. We observed no significant difference in strategy performance with regard to the basic and instrumental activities of daily living. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Participants who received physiotherapy with additional caregiver education benefit no more than those whose caregivers received education alone. Those countries that do not have integral rehabilitation programmes for stroke patients should understand their importance and budget resources for them. Meanwhile, both caregiver education and nurses trained in specific care and physiotherapy are alternatives that benefit these patients.

[The clinical guidelines as a potential tool to improving health care quality]. / El potencial de las guías de práctica clínica para mejorar la calidad de la atención.

There is an increasing demand to ensure quality in the providing and receiving health care. Health care services face different challenges, such as: a growing aging population, increasing care costs, variations in clinical practice, and a fasting increase in the generation of information on diagnostic methods and therapies. In this context, a wave of development and use of clinical guidelines (CGL) based on scientific evidence has emerged worldwide, with the aim to creating tools to promote clinical excellence in practice. Our country and the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), with its experience in developing CGL has joined this trend as a main project. It is beneficial for IMSS health professionals and their patients. The aim of this paper is to present general information on definitions, structure, quality standards, development proceedings, updating, and potential advantages and disadvantages by using CGL. To achieve the expectations of a positive impact on quality and the health care budget distribution, health care personnel must be open to and receptive to the CGL recommendations and be flexible in changing their clinical practice.

[Bordetella pertussis in adolescent students in Mexico City]. / Bordetella pertussis em estudantes adolescentes da Cidade do México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate seroprevalence of Bordetella pertussis in students and their community. METHODS: A total of 12,273 adolescent students aged 12 to 15 years from 14 public high schools in Mexico City were studied from September 2002 to March 2003. Nasopharyngeal samples were collected from those adolescents with whooping cough for more than 14 days. Infection was confirmed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). All students, school staff and family exposed to PCR-confirmed cases were tested. RESULTS: Whooping cough rate was 5 to 1,000 students. Of those students (61) who were identified with whooping cough for more than 14 days, 20 (32.8%) were positive to Bordetella pertussis. Of 152 people exposed (contacts) to these cases, 16 (10.6%) were positive and only eight (50%) had whooping cough. One of these exposed (contacts) was the principal of a school that had more than 60% positive cases (12/20) and who was also a teacher of 10 infected students. Of 29 family members tested, eight (27.6%) were positive and from three different families. CONCLUSIONS: The study results show a similar rate of whooping cough in adolescents as seen in other countries. Since persistent cough is not always clinically seen in all infected individuals, there may be asymptomatic cases of Bordetella infection.

[Guide for appropriate using of the non-opioid analgesics in the management of pain]. / Guía para la utilización de analgésicos no opioides en el manejo del dolor.

The purpose of this guide is to provide for general practitioners or physicians of primary care a comprehensive, evidence based tool that permits them to take an adequate decision about the appropriate use of the non-opioid analgesics in the management of pain.

[Characterization of stroke patients attended at IMSS hospitals in Mexico City]. / Caracterización de los pacientes con EVC atendidos en hospitales del IMSS en la Ciudad de México.

BACKGROUND: Cerebrovascular disease (CD) is considered a problem of huge social, economic and public health implications worldwide in adults and elderly. In Mexico, the information concerning the provision of services to people and their characteristics is limited. The objective is to describe the characteristics of patients with CV who attended the hospitals of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) in Mexico City. METHODS: It was carried out a cohort study of patients with ischemic or hemorrhagic CD who arrived to IMSS. Patients were recruited from seven IMSS general hospitals in Mexico City from June, 2013, to October, 2014. RESULTS: We assigned 430 subjects with CD (78.14% had ischemic CD). There were no statistical differences regarding gender. The median age of patients was 74 years. During their first 72 hours of hospital stay, it was assessed language proficiency in 90%, the ability to walk in 16.3% and the ability to move extremities in 94%. The main risk factors were hypertension, 84%; diabetes mellitus, 46.3%; history of CD, 25.1%; smoking history, 13.7%. 80% of patients reported that their health was regular or poor. CONCLUSIONS: General characteristics of patients and vascular risk factors are similar to those reported by other studies. Secondary prevention strategies are performed in less time than that recommended by international standards. It is urgent to design strategies to build better ways of care during the acute phase of patients with CD.

INTRODUCCIÓN: la enfermedad vascular cerebral (EVC) es un problema de grandes implicaciones a nivel mundial en población adulta y adultos mayores. Es limitada la información en México sobre la provisión de servicios a población con EVC y sus características. El objetivo es presentar las características de la población con EVC que acude a unidades hospitalarias del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) en la Ciudad de México. MÉTODOS: estudio de cohorte en pacientes con EVC isquémica o hemorrágica que llegaron a los servicios de urgencias de hospitales del IMSS. Los pacientes fueron reclutados de siete hospitales generales de zona en la Ciudad de México, de junio del 2013 a octubre del 2014. RESULTADOS: fueron 430 sujetos con EVC (78.14% presentó EVC isquémica). No hubo diferencias estadísticas entre hombres y mujeres. La mediana de edad fue 74 años. Durante las primeras 72 horas de su estancia hospitalaria, en 90% se evaluó la capacidad del lenguaje, en 16.3% la capacidad para caminar y en 94% la capacidad para mover las extremidades. Los factores de riesgo fueron hipertensión arterial (84%), diabetes mellitus (46.3%), antecedentes de EVC (25.1%), antecedentes de tabaquismo (13.7%). El 80% refirió que su salud era regular o mala. CONCLUSIONES: las características generales de los pacientes y los factores de riesgo vascular son similares a los reportados en otros estudios. Las estrategias de prevención secundaria se hacen en menos tiempo que el recomendado por los estándares internacionales. Es importante diseñar estrategias para mejorar la atención en la fase aguda de los pacientes con EVC.