Sudden Cardiac Death in National Collegiate Athletic Association Athletes: A 20-Year Study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the incidence, causes, and trends of sudden cardiac death (SCD) among young competitive athletes is critical to inform preventive policies. METHODS: This study included National Collegiate Athletic Association athlete deaths during a 20-year time frame (July 1, 2002, through June 30, 2022). Athlete deaths were identified through 4 separate independent databases and search strategies (National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list, Parent Heart Watch database and media reports, National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database, and insurance claims). Autopsy reports and medical history were reviewed by an expert panel to adjudicate causes of SCD. RESULTS: A total of 143 SCD cases in National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes were identified from 1102 total deaths. The National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list identified 117 of 143 (82%), the Parent Heart Watch database or media reports identified 89 of 143 (62%), the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database identified 63 of 143 (44%), and insurance claims identified 27 of 143 (19%) SCD cases. The overall incidence of SCD was 1:63 682 athlete-years (95% CI, 1:54 065-1:75 010). Incidence was higher in male athletes than in female athletes (1:43 348 [95% CI, 1:36 228-1:51 867] versus 1:164 504 [95% CI, 1:110 552-1:244 787] athlete-years, respectively) and Black athletes compared with White athletes (1:26 704 [1:20 417-1:34 925] versus 1:74 581 [1:60 247-1:92 326] athlete-years, respectively). The highest incidence of SCD was among Division I male basketball players (1:8188 [White, 1:5848; Black, 1:7696 athlete-years]). The incidence rate for SCD decreased over the study period (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.71 [95% CI, 0.61-0.82]), whereas the rate of noncardiovascular deaths remained stable (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.94-1.04]). Autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (19.5%) was the most common postmortem examination finding, followed by idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy or possible cardiomyopathy (16.9%) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (12.7%), in cases with enough information for adjudication (118 of 143). Eight cases of death were attributable to myocarditis over the study period (1 case from January 1, 2020, through June 30, 2022), with none attributed to COVID-19 infection. SCD events were exertional in 50% of cases. Exertional SCD was more common among those with coronary artery anomalies (100%) and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (83%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of SCD in college athletes has decreased. Male sex, Black race, and basketball are associated with a higher incidence of SCD.

Systemic Arterial Oxygen Levels Differentiate Pre- and Post-capillary Predominant Hemodynamic Abnormalities During Exercise in Undifferentiated Dyspnea on Exertion.

BACKGROUND: Whether systemic oxygen levels (SaO2) during exercise can provide a window into invasively derived exercise hemodynamic profiles in patients with undifferentiated dyspnea on exertion is unknown. METHODS: We performed cardiopulmonary exercise testing with invasive hemodynamic monitoring and arterial blood gas sampling in individuals referred for dyspnea on exertion. Receiver operator analysis was performed to distinguish heart failure with preserved ejection fraction from pulmonary arterial hypertension. RESULTS: Among 253 patients (mean ± SD, age 63 ± 14 years, 55% female, arterial O2 [PaO2] 87 ± 14 mmHg, SaO2 96% ± 4%, resting pulmonary capillary wedge pressure [PCWP] 18 ± 4mmHg, and pulmonary vascular resistance [PVR] 2.7 ± 1.2 Wood units), there was no exercise PCWP threshold, measured up to 49 mmHg, above which hypoxemia was consistently observed. Exercise PaO2 was not correlated with exercise PCWP (rho = 0.04; P = 0.51) but did relate to exercise PVR (rho = -0.46; P < 0.001). Exercise PaO2 and SaO2 levels distinguished left-heart-predominant dysfunction from pulmonary-vascular-predominant dysfunction with an area under the curve of 0.89 and 0.89, respectively. CONCLUSION: Systemic O2 levels during exercise distinguish relative pre- and post-capillary pulmonary hemodynamic abnormalities in patients with undifferentiated dyspnea. Hypoxemia during upright exercise should not be attributed to isolated elevation in left heart filling pressures and should prompt consideration of pulmonary vascular dysfunction.

Career duration and later-life health conditions among former professional American-style football players.

OBJECTIVES: Career duration is often used as a metric of neurotrauma exposure in studies of elite athletes. However, as a proxy metric, career length may not accurately represent causal factors, and associations with health outcomes may be susceptible to selection effects. To date, relationships between professional American-style football (ASF) career length and postcareer health remain incompletely characterised. METHODS: We conducted a survey-based cross-sectional cohort study of former professional ASF players. Flexible regression methods measured associations between self-reported career duration and four self-reported health conditions: pain, arthritis, mood and cognitive symptoms. We also measured associations between career duration and four self-reported ASF exposures: prior concussion signs and symptoms (CSS), performance enhancing drugs, intracareer surgeries and average snaps per game. Models were adjusted for age and race. RESULTS: Among 4189 former players (52±14 years of age, 39% black, 34% lineman position), the average career length was 6.7±3.9 professional seasons (range=1-20+). We observed inverted U-shaped relationships between career duration and outcomes (all p<0.001), indicating that adverse health effects were more common among men with intermediate career durations than those with shorter or longer careers. Similar findings were observed for play-related exposures (eg, CSS and snaps). CONCLUSIONS: Relationships between ASF career duration and subsequent health status are non-linear. Attenuation of the associations among longer career players may reflect selection effects and suggest career length may serve as a poor proxy for true causal factors. Findings highlight the need for cautious use of career duration as a proxy exposure metric in studies of former athletes.

The active grandparent hypothesis: Physical activity and the evolution of extended human healthspans and lifespans.

The proximate mechanisms by which physical activity (PA) slows senescence and decreases morbidity and mortality have been extensively documented. However, we lack an ultimate, evolutionary explanation for why lifelong PA, particularly during middle and older age, promotes health. As the growing worldwide epidemic of physical inactivity accelerates the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases among aging populations, integrating evolutionary and biomedical perspectives can foster new insights into how and why lifelong PA helps preserve health and extend lifespans. Building on previous life-history research, we assess the evidence that humans were selected not just to live several decades after they cease reproducing but also to be moderately physically active during those postreproductive years. We next review the longstanding hypothesis that PA promotes health by allocating energy away from potentially harmful overinvestments in fat storage and reproductive tissues and propose the novel hypothesis that PA also stimulates energy allocation toward repair and maintenance processes. We hypothesize that selection in humans for lifelong PA, including during postreproductive years to provision offspring, promoted selection for both energy allocation pathways which synergistically slow senescence and reduce vulnerability to many forms of chronic diseases. As a result, extended human healthspans and lifespans are both a cause and an effect of habitual PA, helping explain why lack of lifelong PA in humans can increase disease risk and reduce longevity.

[Identifying and assisting sedentary patients: a practical guide]. / Identifier et accompagner les patient-es sédentaires : un guide pratique.

A sedentary lifestyle is a significant cardiovascular risk factor and increases premature mortality. Engaging in routine physical activity (PA) provides a wide range of health benefits. Accordingly, physical inactivity must be identified and sedentary patients supported systematically to achieve recommended levels of PA. The level of PA can be assessed by taking patients' history and using specific tools. Support begins by assessing PA contraindications and patients' level of motivation to change their lifestyle. Patients are then encouraged to adopt a more active lifestyle through tailored advice, and if necessary, referred to specialists with expertise in exercise medicine. This article details the key aspects of accompanying sedentary patients, to help healthcare professionals integrate them into their practice.

La sédentarité est un facteur de risque cardiovasculaire et de mortalité prématurée important et la pratique d'une activité physique (AP) procure un éventail large de bénéfices pour la santé. Elle doit donc être identifiée et adressée de manière systématique en consultation médicale. Le niveau d'AP peut être évalué par l'anamnèse et des outils spécifiques. L'accompagnement débute par une évaluation des contre-indications à la pratique d'une AP et du niveau de motivation des patient-es à changer leur mode de vie. Ceux-ci sont ensuite encouragé-es à adopter un mode de vie plus actif à travers des conseils adaptés, et si nécessaire, adressé-es à d'autres spécialistes. Cet article détaille les aspects clés de l'accompagnement des patient-es sédentaires afin d'aider les professionnel-les de la santé à les intégrer dans leur pratique.

[Basics of exercise physiology: from Fick principle to the athlete's heart]. / Bases de la physiologie de l'exercice : du principe de Fick au cœur d'athlète.

Physical activity is undeniably associated with numerous health benefits. However, performance of high intensity and/or high-volume exercise poses a significant physiological challenge to the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, which must undergo several adaptations to meet the increased metabolic demands of the organism. Repeated and prolonged exposure to training leads to long-term cardiac remodeling aimed at optimizing the efficiency of the work performed by the heart during exertion. This article discusses some of the fundamental mechanisms of cardiovascular physiology during exercise including adaptive responses to acute bouts of exercise and longer term structural and functional characteristics of the athlete's heart.

L'exercice physique est indéniablement associé à de nombreux bénéfices pour la santé. La réalisation d'un effort représente un défi physiologique important pour le système cardiovasculaire et respiratoire, qui doivent entreprendre plusieurs adaptations permettant l'augmentation du débit cardiaque afin de palier l'augmentation des demandes métaboliques de l'organisme. L'exposition répétée et prolongée à l'entraînement induit à long terme un remodelage cardiaque optimisant l'efficience du système cardiovasculaire à l'effort. Dans cet article, nous analysons certains des mécanismes de base de la physiologie cardiovasculaire à l'effort, en passant des adaptations survenant lors d'un effort, pour finalement discuter des adaptations structurelles et fonctionnelles qui caractérisent le cœur d'athlète.

Athlete's Heart: A Cardiovascular Step-By-Step Multimodality Approach.

"Athlete's heart" is a spectrum of morphological, functional, and regulatory changes that occur in people who practice regular and long-term intense physical activity. The morphological characteristics of the athlete's heart may overlap with some structural and electrical cardiac diseases that may predispose to sudden cardiac death, including inherited and acquired cardiomyopathies, aortopathies and channelopathies. Overdiagnosis should be avoided, while an early identification of underlying cardiac life-threatening disorders is essential to reduce the potential for sudden cardiac death. A step-by-step multimodality approach, including a first-line evaluation with personal and family history, clinical evaluation, 12-lead resting electrocardiography (ECG), followed by second and third-line investigations, as appropriate, including exercise testing, resting and exercise echocardiography, 24-hour ECG Holter monitoring, cardiac magnetic resonance, computed tomography, nuclear scintigraphy, or genetic testing, can be determinant to differentiate between extreme physiology adaptations and cardiac pathology. In this context, cardiovascular imaging plays a key role in detecting structural abnormalities in athletes who fall into the grey zone between physiological adaptations and a covert or early phenotype of cardiovascular disease.

Exercise Training Does Not Attenuate Cardiac Atrophy or Loss of Function in Individuals With Acute Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of 2 modes of exercise training, upper-body alone, and the addition of electrical stimulation of the lower body, to attenuate cardiac atrophy and loss of function in individuals with acute spinal cord injury (SCI). DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Rehabilitation Hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Volunteers (N=27; 5 women, 22 men) who were <24 months post SCI. INTERVENTIONS: Volunteers completed either 6 months of no structured exercise (Control), arm rowing (AO), or a combination of arm rowing with electrical stimulation of lower body paralyzed muscle (functional electrical stimulation [FES] rowing). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Transthoracic echocardiography was performed on each subject prior to and 6 months after the intervention. The relations between time since injury and exercise type to cardiac structure and function were assessed via 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance and with multilevel linear regression. RESULTS: Time since injury was significantly associated with a continuous decline in cardiac structure and systolic function, specifically, a reduction in left ventricular mass (0.197 g/month; P=.049), internal diameter during systole (0.255 mm/month; P<.001), and diastole (0.217 mm/month; P=.019), as well as cardiac output (0.048 L/month, P=.019), and left ventricular percent shortening (0.256 %/month; P=.027). These associations were not differentially affected by exercise (Control vs AO vs FES, P>.05). CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that within the subacute phase of recovery from SCI there is a linear loss of left ventricular cardiac structure and systolic function that is not attenuated by current rehabilitative aerobic exercise practices. Reductions in cardiac structure and function may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease in individuals with SCI and warrants further interventions to prevent cardiac decline.

Does cardiovascular preparticipation screening cause psychological distress in athletes? A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the psychological implications of cardiovascular preparticipation screening (PPS) in athletes. DESIGN: Systematic review. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, APA PsycInfo, Cochrane Library and grey literature sources. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Observational and experimental studies assessing a population of athletes who participated in a cardiovascular PPS protocol, where psychological outcomes before, during and/or after PPS were reported. METHODS: Results of included studies were synthesised by consolidating similar study-reported measures for key psychological outcomes before, during and/or after screening. Summary measures (medians, ranges) were computed across studies for each psychological outcome. RESULTS: A total of eight studies were included in this review (median sample size: 479). Study cohorts consisted of high school, collegiate, professional and recreational athletes (medians: 59% male, 20.5 years). Most athletes reported positive reactions to screening and would recommend it to others (range 88%-100%, five studies). Increased psychological distress was mainly reported among athletes detected with pathological cardiac conditions and true-positive screening results. In comparison, athletes with false-positive screening results still reported an increased feeling of safety while participating in sport and were satisfied with PPS. A universal conclusion across all studies was that most athletes did not experience psychological distress before, during or after PPS, regardless of the screening modality used or accuracy of results. CONCLUSION: Psychological distress associated with PPS in athletes is rare and limited to athletes with true-positive findings. To mitigate downstream consequences in athletes who experience psychological distress, appropriate interventions and resources should be accessible prior to the screening procedure. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42021272887.

The influence of maturation on exercise-induced cardiac remodelling and haematological adaptation.

Cardiovascular and haematological adaptations to endurance training facilitate greater maximal oxygen consumption ( V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$ ), and such adaptations may be augmented following puberty. Therefore, we compared left ventricular (LV) morphology (echocardiography), blood volume, haemoglobin (Hb) mass (CO rebreathing) and V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$ in endurance-trained and untrained boys (n = 42, age = 9.0-17.1 years, V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$  = 61.6 ± 7.2 ml/kg/min, and n = 31, age = 8.0-17.7 years, V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$  = 46.5 ± 6.1 ml/kg/min, respectively) and girls (n = 45, age = 8.2-17.0 years, V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$  = 51.4 ± 5.7 ml/kg/min, and n = 36, age = 8.0-17.6 years, V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$  = 39.8 ± 5.7 ml/kg/min, respectively). Pubertal stage was estimated via maturity offset, with participants classified as pre- or post-peak height velocity (PHV). Pre-PHV, only a larger LV end-diastolic volume/lean body mass (EDV/LBM) for trained boys (+0.28 ml/kg LBM, P = 0.007) and a higher Hb mass/LBM for trained girls (+1.65 g/kg LBM, P = 0.007) were evident compared to untrained controls. Post-PHV, LV mass/LBM (boys: +0.50 g/kg LBM, P = 0.0003; girls: +0.35 g/kg LBM, P = 0.003), EDV/LBM (boys: +0.35 ml/kg LBM, P < 0.0001; girls: +0.31 ml/kg LBM, P = 0.0004), blood volume/LBM (boys: +12.47 ml/kg LBM, P = 0.004; girls: +13.48 ml/kg LBM, P = 0.0002.) and Hb mass/LBM (boys: +1.29 g/kg LBM, P = 0.015; girls: +1.47 g/kg LBM, P = 0.002) were all greater in trained versus untrained groups. Pre-PHV, EDV (R2adj  = 0.224, P = 0.001) in boys, and Hb mass and interventricular septal thickness (R2adj  = 0.317, P = 0.002) in girls partially accounted for the variance in V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$ . Post-PHV, stronger predictive models were evident via the inclusion of LV wall thickness and EDV in boys (R2adj  = 0.608, P < 0.0001), and posterior wall thickness and Hb mass in girls (R2adj  = 0.490, P < 0.0001). In conclusion, cardiovascular adaptation to exercise training is more pronounced post-PHV, with evidence for a greater role of central components for oxygen delivery. KEY POINTS: It has long been hypothesised that cardiovascular adaptation to endurance training is augmented following puberty. We investigated whether differences in cardiac and haematological variables exist, and to what extent, between endurance-trained versus untrained, pre- and post-peak height velocity (PHV) children, and how these central factors relate to maximal oxygen consumption. Using echocardiography to quantify left ventricular (LV) morphology and carbon monoxide rebreathing to determine blood volume and haemoglobin mass, we identified that training-related differences in LV morphology are evident in pre-PHV children, with haematological differences also observed between pre-PHV girls. However, the breadth and magnitude of cardiovascular remodelling was more pronounced post-PHV. Cardiac and haematological measures provide significant predictive models for maximal oxygen consumption ( V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$ ) in children that are much stronger post-PHV, suggesting that other important determinants within the oxygen transport chain could account for the majority of variance in V̇O2max${\dot{V}_{{{\rm{O}}_{\rm{2}}}{\rm{max}}}}$ before puberty.

SARS-CoV-2 Cardiac Involvement in Young Competitive Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac involvement among hospitalized patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is common and associated with adverse outcomes. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and clinical implications of COVID-19 cardiac involvement in young competitive athletes. METHODS: In this prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study with data from 42 colleges and universities, we assessed the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and outcomes of COVID-19 cardiac involvement among collegiate athletes in the United States. Data were collected from September 1, 2020, to December 31, 2020. The primary outcome was the prevalence of definite, probable, or possible COVID-19 cardiac involvement based on imaging definitions adapted from the Updated Lake Louise Imaging Criteria. Secondary outcomes included the diagnostic yield of cardiac testing, predictors for cardiac involvement, and adverse cardiovascular events or hospitalizations. RESULTS: Among 19 378 athletes tested for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, 3018 (mean age, 20 years [SD, 1 year]; 32% female) tested positive and underwent cardiac evaluation. A total of 2820 athletes underwent at least 1 element of cardiac triad testing (12-lead ECG, troponin, transthoracic echocardiography) followed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) if clinically indicated. In contrast, primary screening CMR was performed in 198 athletes. Abnormal findings suggestive of SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement were detected by ECG (21 of 2999 [0.7%]), cardiac troponin (24 of 2719 [0.9%]), and transthoracic echocardiography (24 of 2556 [0.9%]). Definite, probable, or possible SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement was identified in 21 of 3018 (0.7%) athletes, including 15 of 2820 (0.5%) who underwent clinically indicated CMR (n=119) and 6 of 198 (3.0%) who underwent primary screening CMR. Accordingly, the diagnostic yield of CMR for SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement was 4.2 times higher for a clinically indicated CMR (15 of 119 [12.6%]) versus a primary screening CMR (6 of 198 [3.0%]). After adjustment for race and sex, predictors of SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement included cardiopulmonary symptoms (odds ratio, 3.1 [95% CI, 1.2, 7.7]) or at least 1 abnormal triad test result (odds ratio, 37.4 [95% CI, 13.3, 105.3]). Five (0.2%) athletes required hospitalization for noncardiac complications of COVID-19. During clinical surveillance (median follow-up, 113 days [interquartile range=90 146]), there was 1 (0.03%) adverse cardiac event, likely unrelated to SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSIONS: SARS-CoV-2 infection among young competitive athletes is associated with a low prevalence of cardiac involvement and a low risk of clinical events in short-term follow-up.

Exercise-Induced Cardiac Troponin Elevations: From Underlying Mechanisms to Clinical Relevance.

Serological assessment of cardiac troponins (cTn) is the gold standard to assess myocardial injury in clinical practice. A greater magnitude of acutely or chronically elevated cTn concentrations is associated with lower event-free survival in patients and the general population. Exercise training is known to improve cardiovascular function and promote longevity, but exercise can produce an acute rise in cTn concentrations, which may exceed the upper reference limit in a substantial number of individuals. Whether exercise-induced cTn elevations are attributable to a physiological or pathological response and if they are clinically relevant has been debated for decades. Thus far, exercise-induced cTn elevations have been viewed as the only benign form of cTn elevations. However, recent studies report intriguing findings that shed new light on the underlying mechanisms and clinical relevance of exercise-induced cTn elevations. We will review the biochemical characteristics of cTn assays, key factors determining the magnitude of postexercise cTn concentrations, the release kinetics, underlying mechanisms causing and contributing to exercise-induced cTn release, and the clinical relevance of exercise-induced cTn elevations. We will also explain the association with cardiac function, correlates with (subclinical) cardiovascular diseases and exercise-induced cTn elevations predictive value for future cardiovascular events. Last, we will provide recommendations for interpretation of these findings and provide direction for future research in this field.

Utilization of cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging for resumption of athletic activities following COVID-19 infection: an expert consensus document on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention (CVRI) Leadership and endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (SCMR).

The global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by infection with severe acute respiratory suyndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is now entering its 4th year with little evidence of abatement. As of December 2022, the World Health Organization Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard reported 643 million cumulative confirmed cases of COVID-19 worldwide and 98 million in the United States alone as the country with the highest number of cases. While pneumonia with lung injury has been the manifestation of COVID-19 principally responsible for morbidity and mortality, myocardial inflammation and systolic dysfunction though uncommon are well-recognized features that also associate with adverse prognosis. Given the broad swath of the population infected with COVID-19, the large number of affected professional, collegiate, and amateur athletes raises concern regarding the safe resumption of athletic activity (return to play, RTP) following resolution of infection. A variety of different testing combinations that leverage the electrocardiogram, echocardiography, circulating cardiac biomarkers, and cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging have been proposed and implemented to mitigate risk. CMR in particular affords high sensitivity for myocarditis but has been employed and interpreted non-uniformly in the context of COVID-19 thereby raising uncertainty as to the generalizability and clinical relevance of findings with respect to RTP. This consensus document synthesizes available evidence to contextualize the appropriate utilization of CMR in the RTP assessment of athletes with prior COVID-19 infection to facilitate informed, evidence-based decisions, while identifying knowledge gaps that merit further investigation.

Selection of endurance capabilities and the trade-off between pressure and volume in the evolution of the human heart.

Chimpanzees and gorillas, when not inactive, engage primarily in short bursts of resistance physical activity (RPA), such as climbing and fighting, that creates pressure stress on the cardiovascular system. In contrast, to initially hunt and gather and later to farm, it is thought that preindustrial human survival was dependent on lifelong moderate-intensity endurance physical activity (EPA), which creates a cardiovascular volume stress. Although derived musculoskeletal and thermoregulatory adaptations for EPA in humans have been documented, it is unknown if selection acted similarly on the heart. To test this hypothesis, we compared left ventricular (LV) structure and function across semiwild sanctuary chimpanzees, gorillas, and a sample of humans exposed to markedly different physical activity patterns. We show the human LV possesses derived features that help augment cardiac output (CO) thereby enabling EPA. However, the human LV also demonstrates phenotypic plasticity and, hence, variability, across a wide range of habitual physical activity. We show that the human LV's propensity to remodel differentially in response to chronic pressure or volume stimuli associated with intense RPA and EPA as well as physical inactivity represents an evolutionary trade-off with potential implications for contemporary cardiovascular health. Specifically, the human LV trades off pressure adaptations for volume capabilities and converges on a chimpanzee-like phenotype in response to physical inactivity or sustained pressure loading. Consequently, the derived LV and lifelong low blood pressure (BP) appear to be partly sustained by regular moderate-intensity EPA whose decline in postindustrial societies likely contributes to the modern epidemic of hypertensive heart disease.

Bystander interventions and survival after exercise-related sudden cardiac arrest: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the provision of bystander interventions and rates of survival after exercise-related sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). DESIGN: Systematic review. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane Library and grey literature sources were searched from inception to November/December 2020. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Observational studies assessing a population of exercise-related SCA (out-of-hospital cardiac arrests that occurred during exercise or within 1 hour of cessation of activity), where bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and/or automated external defibrillator (AED) use were reported, and survival outcomes were ascertained. METHODS: Among all included studies, the median (IQR) proportions of bystander CPR and bystander AED use, as well as median (IQR) rate of survival to hospital discharge, were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 29 studies were included in this review, with a median study duration of 78.7 months and a median sample size of 91. Most exercise-related SCA patients were male (median: 92%, IQR: 86%-96%), middle-aged (median: 51, IQR: 39-56 years), and presented with a shockable arrest rhythm (median: 78%, IQR: 62%-86%). Bystander CPR was initiated in a median of 71% (IQR: 59%-87%) of arrests, whereas bystander AED use occurred in a median of 31% (IQR: 19%-42%) of arrests. Among the 19 studies that reported survival to hospital discharge, the median rate of survival was 32% (IQR: 24%-49%). Studies which evaluated the relationship between bystander interventions and survival outcomes reported that both bystander CPR and AED use were associated with survival after exercise-related SCA. CONCLUSION: Exercise-related SCA occurs predominantly in males and presents with a shockable ventricular arrhythmia in most cases, emphasising the importance of rapid access to defibrillation. Further efforts are needed to promote early recognition and a rapid bystander response to exercise-related SCA.

Diagnostic evaluation and cardiopulmonary exercise test findings in young athletes with persistent symptoms following COVID-19.

OBJECTIVES: Persistent or late-onset cardiopulmonary symptoms following COVID-19 may occur in athletes despite a benign initial course. We examined the yield of cardiac evaluation, including cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), in athletes with cardiopulmonary symptoms after COVID-19, compared CPETs in these athletes and those without COVID-19 and evaluated longitudinal changes in CPET with improvement in symptoms. METHODS: This prospective cohort study evaluated young (18-35 years old) athletes referred for cardiopulmonary symptoms that were present>28 days from COVID-19 diagnosis. CPET findings in post-COVID athletes were compared with a matched reference group of healthy athletes without COVID-19. Post-COVID athletes underwent repeat CPET between 3 and 6 months after initial evaluation. RESULTS: Twenty-one consecutive post-COVID athletes with cardiopulmonary symptoms (21.9±3.9 years old, 43% female) were evaluated 3.0±2.1 months after diagnosis. No athlete had active inflammatory heart disease. CPET reproduced presenting symptoms in 86%. Compared with reference athletes (n=42), there was similar peak VO2 but a higher prevalence of abnormal spirometry (42%) and low breathing reserve (42%). Thirteen athletes (62%) completed longitudinal follow-up (4.8±1.9 months). The majority (69%) had reduction in cardiopulmonary symptoms, accompanied by improvement in peak VO2 and oxygen pulse, and reduction in resting and peak heart rate (all p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Despite a high burden of cardiopulmonary symptoms after COVID-19, no athlete had active inflammatory heart disease. CPET was clinically useful to reproduce symptoms with either normal testing or identification of abnormal spirometry as a potential therapeutic target. Improvement in post-COVID symptoms was accompanied by improvements in CPET parameters.

Prevalence and clinical implications of persistent or exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection in 3597 collegiate athletes: a study from the Outcomes Registry for Cardiac Conditions in Athletes (ORCCA).

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence and clinical implications of persistent or exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms in young competitive athletes following SARS-CoV-2 infection. METHODS: This observational cohort study from the Outcomes Registry for Cardiac Conditions in Athletes included 3597 US collegiate athletes after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical characteristics, advanced diagnostic testing and SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae were compared between athletes with persistent symptoms >3 weeks, exertional symptoms on return to exercise and those without persistent or exertional symptoms. RESULTS: Among 3597 athletes (mean age 20 years (SD, 1 year), 34% female), data on persistent and exertional symptoms were reported in 3529 and 3393 athletes, respectively. Persistent symptoms >3 weeks were present in 44/3529 (1.2%) athletes with 2/3529 (0.06%) reporting symptoms >12 weeks. Exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms were present in 137/3393 (4.0%) athletes. Clinical evaluation and diagnostic testing led to the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae in 12/137 (8.8%) athletes with exertional symptoms (five cardiac involvement, two pneumonia, two inappropriate sinus tachycardia, two postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and one pleural effusion). No SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae were identified in athletes with isolated persistent symptoms. Of athletes with chest pain on return to exercise who underwent cardiac MRI (CMR), 5/24 (20.8%) had probable or definite cardiac involvement. In contrast, no athlete with exertional symptoms without chest pain who underwent CMR (0/20) was diagnosed with probable or definite SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement. CONCLUSION: Collegiate athletes with SARS-CoV-2 infection have a low prevalence of persistent or exertional symptoms on return to exercise. Exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms, specifically chest pain, warrant a comprehensive evaluation.

Association between race and maladaptive concentric left ventricular hypertrophy in American-style football athletes.

OBJECTIVES: American-style football (ASF) athletes are at risk for the development of concentric left ventricular hypertrophy (C-LVH), an established cardiovascular risk factor in the general population. We sought to address whether black race is associated with acquired C-LVH in collegiate ASF athletes. METHODS: Collegiate ASF athletes from two National Collegiate Athletic Association Division-I programmes were recruited as freshmen between 2014 and 2019 and analysed over 3 years. Demographics (neighbourhood family income) and repeated clinical characteristics and echocardiography were recorded longitudinally at multiple timepoints. A mixed-modelling approach was performed to evaluate acquired C-LVH in black versus white athletes controlling for playing position (linemen (LM) and non-linemen (NLM)), family income, body weight and blood pressure. RESULTS: At baseline, black athletes (N=124) were more often NLM (72% vs 54%, p=0.005) and had lower median neighbourhood family income ($54 119 vs $63 146, p=0.006) compared with white athletes (N=125). While both black and white LM demonstrated similar increases in C-LVH over time, among NLM acquired C-LVH was more common in black versus white athletes (postseason year-1: N=14/89 (16%) vs N=2/68 (3%); postseason year-2: N=9/50 (18%) vs N=2/32 (6%); postseason year-3: N=8/33 (24%) vs N=1/13 (8%), p=0.005 change over time). In stratified models, black race was associated with acquired C-LVH in NLM (OR: 3.70, 95% CI 1.12 to 12.21, p=0.03) and LM was associated with acquired C-LVH in white athletes (OR: 3.40, 95% CI 1.03 to 11.27, p=0.048). CONCLUSIONS: Independent of family income and changes in weight and blood pressure, black race was associated with acquired C-LVH among collegiate ASF NLM and LM was associated with acquired C-LVH in white athletes.

Healthspan and chronic disease burden among young adult and middle-aged male former American-style professional football players.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationships between age, healthspan and chronic illness among former professional American-style football (ASF) players. METHODS: We compared age-specific race-standardised and body mass index-standardised prevalence ratios of arthritis, dementia/Alzheimer's disease, hypertension and diabetes among early adult and middle-aged (range 25-59 years) male former professional ASF players (n=2864) with a comparator cohort from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and National Health Interview Survey, two representative samples of the US general population. Age was stratified into 25-29, 30-39, 40-49 and 50-59 years. RESULTS: Arthritis and dementia/Alzheimer's disease were more prevalent among ASF players across all study age ranges (all p<0.001). In contrast, hypertension and diabetes were more prevalent among ASF players in the youngest age stratum only (p<0.001 and p<0.01, respectively). ASF players were less likely to demonstrate intact healthspan (ie, absence of chronic disease) than the general population across all age ranges. CONCLUSION: These data suggest the emergence of a maladaptive early ageing phenotype among former professional ASF players characterised by premature burden of chronic disease and reduced healthspan. Additional study is needed to investigate these findings and their impact on morbidity and mortality in former ASF players and other athlete groups.

Electrocardiographic findings in young competitive athletes during acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Initial guidelines recommended a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) in young competitive athletes following SARS-CoV-2 infection to screen for myocarditis. However, no data are available that detail ECG findings before and after SARS-CoV-2 infection in young athletes without clinical or imaging evidence of overt myocarditis. This study applied the International Criteria for ECG interpretation in a cohort of 378 collegiate athletes to compare ECG findings at baseline and during the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our results suggest that ECG changes can occur in the absence of definitive SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement in young competitive athletes.