Socioeconomic inequalities in the uptake of postpartum care at home across Dutch neighbourhoods.

BACKGROUND: Postpartum care focuses on prevention of health problems by performing medical check-ups and through enhancing maternal empowerment, the parent-infant interaction and knowledge about mother's own health and that of her newborn. We aimed to investigate whether there was significant clustering within neighbourhoods regarding the uptake of postpartum care and to what extent neighbourhood-level differences are explained by individual socio-demographic factors, pregnancy-related factors and neighbourhood-level determinants (i.e. deprivation and urbanization). METHODS: A nationwide population-based observational study was carried out using linked routinely collected healthcare data from appropriate-for-gestational-age weight live-born term singleton deliveries (2015-18) in the Netherlands. We performed two-level multivariable logistic regression analyses, using three different models. Model 1 contained no explanatory variables and was used to assess clustering of postpartum care uptake within neighbourhoods. In model 2, individual-level determinants were added one by one and in model 3, neighbourhood-level determinants were added. RESULTS: About 520 818 births were included. Multilevel modelling showed that 11% of the total variance in postpartum care uptake could be attributed to the neighbourhood of residence. Individual characteristics explained 38% of the neighbourhood variance, of which income and migration background were the most important contributors. An additional 6% of the variation could be explained by neighbourhood-level determinants. CONCLUSION: We found substantial neighbourhood differences in postpartum care uptake. These differences are influenced by a complex interplay between individual-level and neighbourhood-level determinants, highlighting the importance of addressing both individual and neighbourhood-level determinants to improve the uptake of postpartum care and therewith overall community health.

Does Neighborhood Crime Mediate the Relationship Between Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and Birth Outcomes? An Application of the Mediational G-Formula.

While the link between living in a low-socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhood and higher risk of adverse birth outcomes has been well established, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Using the parametric g-formula, we assessed the role of neighborhood crime as a potential mediator of the relationship between neighborhood SES and birth outcomes using data on singleton births occurring in the Netherlands between 2010 and 2017 (n = 1,219,470). We estimated total and mediated effects of neighborhood SES on small-for-gestational-age (SGA) birth, low birth weight (LBW), and preterm birth (PTB) for 3 types of crime (violent crimes, crimes against property, and crimes against public order). The g-formula intervention settings corresponded to a hypothetical improvement in neighborhood SES. A hypothetical improvement in neighborhood SES resulted in a 6.6% (95% CI: 5.6, 7.5) reduction in the proportion of SGA birth, a 9.1% (95% CI: 7.6, 10.6) reduction in LBW, and a 5.8% (95% CI: 5.7, 6.2) decrease in PTB. Neighborhood crime jointly accounted for 28.1% and 8.6% of the total effects on SGA birth and LBW, respectively. For PTB, we found no evidence of mediation. The most relevant pathways were crimes against property and crimes against public order. The results indicate that neighborhood crime mediates a meaningful share of the relationship between neighborhood SES and birth outcomes.

Neighbourhood-related socioeconomic perinatal health inequalities: An illustration of the mediational g-formula and considerations for the big data context.

BACKGROUND: Advances in computing power have enabled the collection, linkage and processing of big data. Big data in conjunction with robust causal inference methods can be used to answer research questions regarding the mechanisms underlying an exposure-outcome relationship. The g-formula is a flexible approach to perform causal mediation analysis that is suited for the big data context. Although this approach has many advantages, it is underused in perinatal epidemiology and didactic explanation for its implementation is still limited. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this was to provide a didactic application of the mediational g-formula by means of perinatal health inequalities research. METHODS: The analytical procedure of the mediational g-formula is illustrated by investigating whether the relationship between neighbourhood socioeconomic status (SES) and small for gestational age (SGA) is mediated by neighbourhood social environment. Data on singleton births that occurred in the Netherlands between 2010 and 2017 (n = 1,217,626) were obtained from the Netherlands Perinatal Registry and linked to sociodemographic national registry data and neighbourhood-level data. The g-formula settings corresponded to a hypothetical improvement in neighbourhood SES from disadvantaged to non-disadvantaged. RESULTS: At the population level, a hypothetical improvement in neighbourhood SES resulted in a 6.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 5.2, 7.5) relative reduction in the proportion of SGA, that is the total effect. The total effect was decomposed into the natural direct effect (5.6%, 95% CI 5.1, 6.1) and the natural indirect effect (0.7%, 95% CI 0.6, 0.9). In terms of the magnitude of mediation, it was observed the natural indirect effect accounted for 11.4% (95% CI 9.2, 13.6) of the total effect of neighbourhood SES on SGA. CONCLUSIONS: The mediational g-formula is a flexible approach to perform causal mediation analysis that is suited for big data contexts in perinatal health research. Its application can contribute to providing valuable insights for the development of policy and public health interventions.

Piloting a complex intervention to promote a tobacco and alcohol-free pregnancy: the Smoke and Alcohol Free with EHealth and Rewards (SAFER) pregnancy study.

BACKGROUND: Tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption before and during pregnancy increase the risk of adverse health outcomes for mother and child. Interventions to address smoking and drinking before and during pregnancy have the potential to reduce early-life health inequalities. In the Smoke and Alcohol Free with EHealth and Rewards (SAFER) pilot study we aimed to evaluate the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of a complex intervention supporting women in smoking and alcohol cessation before and during pregnancy. METHODS: From February 2019 till March 2021, we piloted the SAFER pregnancy intervention among pregnant women and women planning pregnancy in South-West Netherlands in an uncontrolled before-after study. Participants were supported in smoking and alcohol cessation via up to six group sessions and an online platform. In addition, biochemically validated cessation was rewarded with incentives (i.e. shopping vouchers) amounting up to 185 euros. We aimed to include 66 women. The primary outcome was smoking and/or alcohol cessation at 34-38 weeks of gestation (if pregnant) or after six group sessions (if not pregnant). Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Focus group interviews among those involved in the study were conducted at the end of the study to explore their experiences. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Thirty-nine women who smoked were included; no women who consumed alcohol were referred to the study. Unemployment (51%), financial problems (36%) and a smoking partner (72%) were common. Thirteen women (33%) dropped out, often due to other problems impeding smoking cessation or 'being too busy' to participate in the group sessions. Eleven women (28%) had quit smoking at the study's endpoint. The personal and positive approach was highly valued and biochemical validation was felt to be helpful. CONCLUSION: The SAFER pregnancy intervention seems appropriate for women in need of extra support for smoking cessation before and during pregnancy. Its impact on alcohol cessation could not be studied due to recruitment issues. Recruitment and prevention of early dropout need attention in further development of this intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register: NL7493. Date registered: 04/02/2019.

Impact of the EURO-PERISTAT Reports on obstetric management: a difference-in-regression-discontinuity analysis.

BACKGROUND: Population health monitoring, such as perinatal mortality and morbidity rankings published by the European Perinatal Health (EURO-PERISTAT) reports may influence obstetric care providers' decision-making and professional behaviour. We investigated short-term changes in the obstetric management of singleton term deliveries in the Netherlands following publication of the EURO-PERISTAT reports in 2003, 2008 and 2013. METHODS: We used a quasi-experimental difference-in-regression-discontinuity approach. National perinatal registry data (2001-15) was used to compare obstetric management at delivery in four time windows (1, 2, 3 and 5 months) surrounding publication of each EURO-PERISTAT report. RESULTS: The 2003 EURO-PERISTAT report was associated with higher relative risks (RRs) for an assisted vaginal delivery across all time windows [RR (95% CI): 1 month: 1.23 (1.05-1.45), 2 months: 1.15 (1.02-1.30), 3 months: 1.21 (1.09-1.33) and 5 months: 1.21 (1.11-1.31)]. The 2008 report was associated with lower RRs for an assisted vaginal delivery at the 3- and 5-month time windows [0.86 (0.77-0.96) and 0.88 (0.81-0.96)]. Publication of the 2013 report was associated with higher RRs for a planned caesarean section across all time windows [1 month: 1.23 (1.00-1.52), 2 months: 1.26 (1.09-1.45), 3 months: 1.26 (1.12-1.42) and 5 months: 1.19(1.09-1.31)] and lower RRs for an assisted vaginal delivery at the 2-, 3- and 5-month time windows [0.85 (0.73-0.98), 0.83 (0.74-0.94) and 0.88 (0.80-0.97)]. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that quasi-experimental study designs, such as the difference-in-regression-discontinuity approach, are useful to unravel the impact of population health monitoring on decision-making and professional behaviour of healthcare providers. A better understanding of the contribution of health monitoring to the behaviour of healthcare providers can help guide improvements within the (perinatal) healthcare chain.

The impact of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids trial on the administration of antenatal corticosteroids.

BACKGROUND: In 2016 the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study was published, demonstrating that antenatal corticosteroid therapy given to women at risk of late preterm delivery reduces respiratory morbidity in infants. However, the administration of antenatal corticosteroid therapy in late-preterm infants remains controversial. Late-preterm infants do not suffer from the same rates of morbidity as early-preterm infants, and the short-term benefits of antenatal corticosteroid therapy are less pronounced; consequently, the risk of possible harm is more difficult to balance. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the association between the publication of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study or the subsequent changes in guidelines and the rates of antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration in late-preterm infants in the United States. STUDY DESIGN: Data analyzed were publicly available US birth certificate data from January 1, 2016 to December 31, 2018. An interrupted time series design was used to analyze the association between publication of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study and changes in monthly rates of antenatal corticosteroid administration in late preterm gestation (34+0 to 36+6 weeks). Births at 28+0 to 31+6 weeks' gestation were used as a control. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration in women with births at 32+0 to 34+6 weeks was explored to analyze whether the intervention influenced antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration in women in the subgroup approaching 34 weeks' gestation. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration in women with term births (>37 weeks' gestation) was analyzed to explore if the intervention influenced the number of term babies exposed to antenatal corticosteroid therapy. Our regression model allowed analysis of both step and slope changes. February 2016 was chosen as the intervention period. RESULTS: Our sample size was 18,031,950 total births. Of these, 1,056,047 were births at 34+0 to 36+6 weeks' gestation, 123,788 at 28+0 to 31+6 weeks, 153,708 at 32 to 33 weeks, and 16,602,699 were term births. There were 95,708 births at <28 weeks' gestation. There was a statistically significant increase in antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration rates in late preterm births following the online publication of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 1.48; 95% confidence interval, 1.36-1.61; P=.00). A significant increase in antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration rates was also seen in full-term births following the online publication of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study. No significant changes were seen in antenatal corticosteroid administration rates in gestational age groups of 32+0 to 33+6 weeks or 28+0 to 31+6 weeks. CONCLUSION: Online publication of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study was associated with an immediate and sustained increase in the rates of antenatal corticosteroid therapy administration in late preterm births across the United States, demonstrating a swift and successful implementation of the Antenatal Late Preterm Steroids study guidance into clinical practice. However, there is an unnecessary increase in full-term infants receiving antenatal corticosteroid therapy. Given that the long-term consequences of antenatal corticosteroid therapy are yet to be elucidated, efforts should be made to minimize the number of infants unnecessarily exposed to antenatal corticosteroid therapy.

The association of specific industry-related air pollution with occurrence of chronic diseases: A register-based study.

Air pollution may contribute to onset and progression of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Most studies have focused on the contribution of traffic-related exposure to PM10 or PM2.5. Our aim was to investigate the association of different components of industry-related air pollution on the occurrence of chronic diseases. A register-based repeated cross-sectional study was conducted among 89,714 subjects (2012) with 536,599 annual observations (2012-2017) living in the vicinity of a large industrial area in the Netherlands. Information from the dispensed medication registration was linked with a dispersion model to characterize annual individual-level exposure of all subjects at place of residence. Associations between annual exposure (concentration and duration) to particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) with annual dispensed medication for cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, and inflammatory conditions were investigated by multivariate logistic regression analysis with generalized estimating equations (GEE) while controlling for confounders. Exposure to PM10 and to NOX (per µg/m3) were significantly associated with medication for cardiovascular diseases (OR 1.06, 95CI% 1.06-1.06 and OR 1.01, 95%CI 1.01-1.01 respectively). Exposures to PM10 and SO2 (per µg/m3) were significantly associated with medication for inflammatory conditions (OR 1.05, 95%CI 1.00-1.09 and OR 1.07, 95%CI 1.01-1.14 respectively). Exposure to SO2 was inversely associated with respiratory diseases (OR 0.91, 95%CI 0.86-0.97). Except for inflammatory conditions, exposure duration (years) was significantly associated with the other three chronic diseases (OR varying from 1.01 to 1.03). This study indicates that specific air pollution components caused by industry may contribute to the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, and inflammatory conditions.

Introducing heart rate variability monitoring combined with biomarker screening into a level IV NICU: a prospective implementation study.

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between the implementation of a local heart rate variability (HRV) monitoring guideline combined with determination of inflammatory biomarkers and mortality, measures of sepsis severity, frequency of sepsis testing, and antibiotic usage, among very preterm neonates. In January 2018, a guideline was implemented for early detection of late-onset neonatal sepsis using HRV monitoring combined with determination of inflammatory biomarkers. Data on all patients admitted with a gestational age at birth of < 32 weeks were reviewed in the period January 2016-June 2020 (n = 1,135; n = 515 pre-implementation, n = 620 post-implementation). Outcomes of interest were (sepsis-related) mortality, sepsis severity (neonatal sequential organ failure assessment (nSOFA)), sepsis testing, and antibiotic usage. Differences before and after implementation of the guideline were assessed using logistic and linear regression analysis for binary and continuous outcomes respectively. All analyses were adjusted for gestational age and sex. Mortality within 10 days of a sepsis episode occurred in 39 (10.3%) and 34 (7.6%) episodes in the pre- and post-implementation period respectively (P = 0.13). The nSOFA course during a sepsis episode was significantly lower in the post-implementation group (P = 0.01). We observed significantly more blood tests for determination of inflammatory biomarkers, but no statistically significant difference in number of blood cultures drawn and in antibiotic usage between the two periods.Conclusion: Implementing HRV monitoring with determination of inflammatory biomarkers might help identify patients with sepsis sooner, resulting in reduced sepsis severity, without an increased use of antibiotics or number of blood cultures.

Expansion of Smoke-Free Policies: Stepping Up FCTC's Game.

The Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (FCTC) is undoubtedly the most efficient international instrument for tobacco control. Article 8 FCTC shapes many smoke-free policies worldwide and in doing so it is usually associated with smoke-free regulation in enclosed public spaces. Our paper highlights that the FCTC contains a sound foundation for smoke-free policies that stretch beyond enclosed public places, such as open public spaces and (quasi-)private spaces. We demonstrate, in particular, that such wide smoke-free regulation, which is gaining momentum around the globe, is versatile and compatible with human rights standards. As such, these expanded smoke-free policies contribute to a wider culture of smoking denormalisation that scales up FCTC's aspiration for tobacco control and subsequently to a smoke-free global society.

Impact of an Inner-City Smoke-Free Zone on Outdoor Smoking Patterns: A Before-After Study.

INTRODUCTION: On September 2, 2019, Rotterdam's first inner-city outdoor smoke-free zone encompassing the Erasmus MC, a large university hospital in the Netherlands, the Erasmiaans high school, the Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences and the public road in between, was implemented. AIMS AND METHODS: We aimed to assess spatiotemporal patterning of smoking before and after implementation of this outdoor smoke-free zone. We performed a before-after observational field study. We systematically observed the number of smokers, and their locations and characteristics over 37 days before and after implementation of the smoke-free zone. RESULTS: Before implementation of the smoke-free zone, 4098 people smoked in the area every weekday during working hours. After implementation, the daily number of smokers was 2241, a 45% reduction (p = .007). There was an increase of 432 smokers per day near and just outside the borders of the zone. At baseline, 31% of the smokers were categorized as employee, 22% as student and 3% as patient. Following implementation of the smoke-free zone, the largest decreases in smokers were observed among employees (-67%, p value .004) and patients (-70%, p value .049). Before and after implementation, 21 and 20 smokers were visibly addressed and asked to smoke elsewhere. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of an inner-city smoke-free zone was associated with a substantial decline in the number of smokers in the zone and an overall reduction of smoking in the larger area. Further research should focus on optimizing implementation of and compliance with outdoor smoke-free zones. IMPLICATIONS: A smoke-free outdoor policy has the potential to denormalize and discourage smoking, support smokers who want to quit, and to protect people from secondhand smoke exposure. Implementation of an inner-city smoke-free zone encompassing a large tertiary hospital and two educational institutions was associated with a substantial decline in the number of smokers in the zone, as well as in the larger area. Voluntary outdoor smoke-free zones can help reduce the number of smokers in the area and protect people from secondhand smoke. There is a need to explore effectiveness of additional measures to further improve compliance.

European progress in working towards a tobacco-free generation.

Children have the right to grow up free from the hazards associated with tobacco smoking. Tobacco smoke exposure can have detrimental effects on children's health and development, from before birth and beyond. As a result of effective tobacco control policies, European smoking rates are steadily decreasing among adults, as is the proportion of adolescents taking up smoking. Substantial variation however exists between countries, both in terms of smoking rates and regarding implementation, comprehensiveness and enforcement of policies to address smoking and second-hand smoke exposure. This is important because comprehensive tobacco control policies such as smoke-free legislation and tobacco taxation have extensively been shown to carry clear health benefits for both adults and children. Additional policies such as increasing the legal age to buy tobacco, reducing the number of outlets selling tobacco, banning tobacco display and advertising at the point-of-sale, and introducing plain packaging for tobacco products can help reduce smoking initiation by youth. At societal level, health professionals can play an important role in advocating for stronger policy measures, whereas they also clearly have a duty to address smoking and tobacco smoke exposure at the patient level. This includes providing cessation advise and referring to effective cessation services.Conclusion: Framing of tobacco exposure as a child right's issue and of comprehensive tobacco control as a tool to work towards the ultimate goal of reaching a tobacco-free generation can help accelerate European progress to curb the tobacco epidemic. What is Known: • Tobacco exposure is associated with a range of adverse health effects among babies and children. • Comprehensive tobacco control policies helped bring down smoking rates in Europe and benefit child health. What is New: • Protecting the rights and health of children provides a strong starting point for tobacco control advocacy. • The tobacco-free generation concept helps policy-makers set clear goals for protecting future generations from tobacco-associated harms.

Assessing knowledge and skills of maternity care professionals regarding neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia: a nationwide survey.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia is a physiologic phenomenon, but, when severe, may cause lifelong disability. Maternity care assistants (MCAs) play an important role in timely recognition of severe neonatal jaundice. We assessed knowledge and skills of MCAs regarding neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia. METHODS: All Dutch MCAs (n = 9065) were invited to fill out a questionnaire assessing knowledge, expertise, and handling of neonatal jaundice. Additionally, we developed an e-learning and provided training sessions to a subgroup of MCAs (n = 99), and assessed their knowledge on neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia before and after the training. RESULTS: One thousand four hundred sixty-five unique online questionnaires were completed (response 16.2%). The median number of correctly answered knowledge questions was 5 (out of six; IQR 1). Knowledge was significantly better when respondents had had in-service training on neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia in the previous year (p = 0.024). Although 82% of respondents felt highly skilled or skilled to assess jaundice, accuracy of estimation of total serum bilirubin levels by assessing skin colour was generally poor and prone to underestimation. Among participants attending a training session, those who completed the e-learning beforehand had higher pre-training scores (5 (IQR 1) vs. 4 (IQR 2); p < 0.001). The median post-training score was higher than pre-training (6 (IQR 1) vs. 5 (IQR 2); p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Background knowledge of MCAs regarding neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia was adequate, but can be improved by further training. Estimation of total serum bilirubin levels based on skin colour was often inadequate. Approaches to improve timely recognition of jaundiced neonates are needed.

Incentives for Smoking Cessation During Pregnancy: An Ethical Framework.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of morbidity and mortality of the mother and child. The inability of the unborn child to protect itself, raises the social and academic responsibility to protect the child from the harmful effects of smoking. Interventions including rewards (incentives) for lifestyle changes are an upcoming trend and can encourage women to quit smoking. However, these incentives can, as we will argue, also have negative consequences, for example the restriction of personal autonomy and encouragement of smoking to become eligible for participation. To prevent these negative consequences, we developed an ethical framework that enables to assess and address unwanted consequences of incentive-based interventions whereby moral permissibility can be evaluated. AIMS AND METHODS: The possible adverse consequences of incentives were identified through an extensive literature search. Subsequently, we developed ethical criteria to identify these consequences based on the biomedical ethical principles of Beauchamp and Childress. RESULTS: Our framework consists of 12 criteria. These criteria concern (1) effectiveness, (2) support of a healthy lifestyle, (3) motivational for the target population, (4) stimulating unhealthy behavior, (5) negative attitudes, (6) personal autonomy, (7) intrinsic motivation, (8) privacy, (9) fairness, (10) allocation of incentives, (11) cost-effectiveness, and (12) health inequity. Based on these criteria, the moral permissibility of potential interventions can be evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: Incentives for smoking cessation are a response to the responsibility to protect the unborn child. But these interventions might have possible adverse effects. This ethical framework aims to identify and address ethical pitfalls in order to avoid these adverse effects. IMPLICATIONS: Although various interventions to promote smoking cessation during pregnancy exist, many women still smoke during pregnancy. Interventions using incentives for smoking cessation during pregnancy are a promising and upcoming trend but can have unwanted consequences. This ethical framework helps to identify and address ethical pitfalls in order to avoid these adverse effects.It can be a practical tool in the development and evaluation of these interventions and in evaluating the moral permissibility of interventions using incentives for smoking cessation during pregnancy.

Smoke-free legislation and neonatal and infant mortality in Brazil: longitudinal quasi-experimental study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations of partial and comprehensive smoke-free legislation with neonatal and infant mortality in Brazil using a quasi-experimental study design. DESIGN: Monthly longitudinal (panel) ecological study from January 2000 to December 2016. SETTING: All Brazilian municipalities (n=5565). PARTICIPANTS: Infant populations. INTERVENTION: Smoke-free legislation in effect in each municipality and month. Legislation was encoded as basic (allowing smoking areas), partial (segregated smoking rooms) or comprehensive (no smoking in public buildings). Associations were quantified by immediate step and longer term slope/trend changes in outcomes. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Municipal-level linear fixed-effects regression models. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Infant and neonatal mortality. RESULTS: Implementation of partial smoke-free legislation was associated with a -3.3 % (95% CI -6.2% to -0.4%) step reduction in the municipal infant mortality rate, but no step change in neonatal mortality. Comprehensive smoke-free legislation implementation was associated with -5.2 % (95% CI -8.3% to -2.1%) and -3.4 % (95% CI -6.7% to -0.1%) step reductions in infant and neonatal mortality, respectively, and a -0.36 (95% CI -0.66 to-0.06) annual decline in the infant mortality rate. We estimated that had all smoke-free legislation introduced since 2004 been comprehensive, an additional 10 091 infant deaths (95% CI 1196 to 21 761) could have been averted. CONCLUSIONS: Strengthening smoke-free legislation in Brazil is associated with improvements in infant health outcomes-particularly under comprehensive legislation. Governments should accelerate implementation of comprehensive smoke-free legislation to protect infant health and achieve the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goal three.

Analysis of tobacco industry pricing strategies in 23 European Union countries using commercial pricing data.

BACKGROUND: The tobacco industry (TI) can act to undermine the impact of tobacco tax increases by adopting various pricing strategies. Little is known about strategies used across the European Union (EU), except for the UK. AIM: To examine pricing strategies adopted by the TI in the EU, and whether they differ by cigarette price segment, or between manufactured and roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes. METHODS: This is a longitudinal analysis of commercial pricing data for manufactured and RYO cigarettes from 23 EU countries in 2006-2017. Price and revenue trends were explored. Linear regression estimated the average annual change in revenue, and linear fixed-effects panel regression models were used to explore the association between changes in median revenue (net of tax and adjusted for inflation) and tax increases in different price segments of manufactured cigarettes. RESULTS: Over the 11-year period price gaps were observed in all countries. The average annual adjusted median net revenue per pack increased in 19 of 23 countries for manufactured and RYO cigarettes. A tax increase was associated with a significant decrease of -€0.09 in adjusted median net revenue per pack (95% CI -0.16 to -0.03) in the cheap cigarette price segment, while no change was detected in the expensive cigarette price segment (-€0.05, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.01). CONCLUSION: Across the EU, pricing strategies adopted by the TI maintained or increased price gaps and retained cheaper tobacco products in the market, diminishing the impact of tobacco tax increases. Further strengthening of tobacco taxation policy is needed to maximise public health impact.

Nutritional status and disease severity in children acutely presenting to a primary health clinic in rural Gambia.

BACKGROUND: Accurate and timely data on the health of a population are key for evidence-based decision making at both the policy and programmatic level. In many low-income settings, such data are unavailable or outdated. Using an electronic medical records system, we determined the association between nutritional status and severe illness and mortality among young children presenting to a rural primary health care facility in the Gambia. METHODS: Clinical data collected over five years (2010-2014) on children aged under 60 months making acute visits to a primary health care clinic in the rural Gambian district of Kiang West were retrospectively extracted from the medical records system. Generalised estimating equation models were used to investigate associations between nutritional status and illness severity, accounting for repeat visits, gender, age and access to transport to the clinic. The Population Attributable Fraction (PAF) was used to determine the proportion of severe illness likely attributable to different grades of malnutrition. RESULTS: 3839/5021 (77%) children under 60 months of age living in Kiang West presented acutely to the clinic at least once, yielding 21,278 visits (47% girls, median age 20.2 months (Interquartile Range (IQR) 23.92 months)) and 26,001 diagnoses, 86% being infectious diseases. Severe illness was seen in 4.5% of visits (961/21,278). Wasting was associated with an increased risk of severe illness in a dose-dependent manner, ('WHZ < -1' adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) 1.68, 95% CI:1.43-1.98, p < 0.001, 'WHZ <-2 and ≥-3' aOR 2.78, 95% CI:2.31-3.36, p < 0.001 and 'WHZ < -3' aOR 7.82, 95% CI:6.40-9.55, p < 0.001) the PAF for wasting (WHZ < -2) was 0.21 (95% CI: 0.18-0.24). Stunting, even in the most severe form (HAZ < -3), was not significantly associated with severe illness (aOR 1.19 95% CI:0.94-1.51) but was associated with a significantly increased risk of death (aOR 6.04 95% CI:1.94-18.78). CONCLUSION: In this population-based cohort of young children in rural Gambia, wasting was associated with disease severity in a dose-dependent manner. Further research is needed into strategies to identify and reach these children with effective interventions to improve their nutritional status.

Inequity in postpartum healthcare provision at home and its association with subsequent healthcare expenditure.

BACKGROUND: Provision of postpartum care can support new families in adapting to a new situation. We aimed to determine whether various determinants of socioeconomic status (SES) were associated with utilization of postpartum care. In addition, to stress the relevance of increasing postpartum care uptake among low SES-groups, an assessment of the potential (cost-)effectiveness of postpartum care is required. METHODS: National retrospective cohort study using linked routinely collected healthcare data from all registered singleton deliveries (2010-13) in the Netherlands. Small-for-gestational age and preterm babies were excluded. The associations between SES and postpartum care uptake, and between uptake and health care expenditure were studied using multivariable regression analyses. RESULTS: Of all 569 921 deliveries included, 1.2% did not receive postpartum care. Among women who did receive care, care duration was below the recommended minimum of 24 h in 15.3%. All indicators of low SES were independently associated with a lack in care uptake. Extremes of maternal age, single parenthood and being of non-Dutch origin were associated with reduced uptake independent of SES determinants. No uptake of postpartum care was associated with maternal healthcare expenses in the highest quartile: aOR 1.34 (95% CI 1.10-1.67). Uptake below the recommended amount was associated with higher maternal and infant healthcare expenses: aOR 1.09 (95% CI 1.03-1.18) and aOR 1.20 (95% CI 1.13-1.27), respectively. CONCLUSION: Although uptake was generally high, low SES women less often received postpartum care, this being associated with higher subsequent healthcare expenses. Strategies to effectively reduce these substantial inequities in early life are urgently needed.

Impact of improved cookstoves on women's and child health in low and middle income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Improved biomass cookstoves may help reduce the substantial global burden of morbidity and mortality due to household air pollution (HAP) that disproportionately affects women and children in low and middle income countries (LMICs). DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis of (quasi-)experimental studies identified from 13 electronic databases (last update: 6 April 2018), reference and citation searches and via expert consultation. SETTING: LMICs PARTICIPANTS: Women and children INTERVENTIONS: Improved biomass cookstoves MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Low birth weight (LBW), preterm birth, perinatal mortality, paediatric acute respiratory infections (ARIs) and COPD among women. RESULTS: We identified 53 eligible studies, including 24 that met prespecified design criteria. Improved cookstoves had no demonstrable impact on paediatric lower ARIs (three studies; 11 560 children; incidence rate ratio (IRR)=1.02 (95% CI 0.84 to 1.24)), severe pneumonia (two studies; 11 061 children; IRR=0.88 (95% CI 0.39 to 2.01)), LBW (one study; 174 babies; OR=0.74 (95% CI 0.33 to 1.66)) or miscarriages, stillbirths and infant mortality (one study; 1176 babies; risk ratio (RR) change=15% (95% CI -13 to 43)). No (quasi-)experimental studies assessed preterm birth or COPD. In observational studies, improved cookstoves were associated with a significant reduction in COPD among women: two studies, 9757 participants; RR=0.74 (95% CI 0.61 to 0.90). Reductions in cough (four studies, 1779 participants; RR=0.72 (95% CI 0.60 to 0.87)), phlegm (four studies, 1779 participants; RR=0.65 (95% CI 0.52 to 0.80)), wheezing/breathing difficulty (four studies; 1779 participants; RR=0.41 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.59)) and conjunctivitis (three studies, 892 participants; RR=0.58 (95% CI 0.43 to 0.78)) were observed among women. CONCLUSION: Improved cookstoves provide respiratory and ocular symptom reduction and may reduce COPD risk among women, but had no demonstrable child health impact. REGISTRATION: PROSPERO: CRD42016033075.