Evaluating Girls on the Run in Promoting Positive Youth Development: Group Comparisons on Life Skills Transfer and Social Processes.

PURPOSE: Girls on the Run (GOTR), a physical activity-based positive youth development program, uses running as a platform to teach life skills and promote healthy behaviors. In this companion paper of our comprehensive project, the authors evaluated program impact on positive youth development by comparing GOTR participants to youth in other organized activities (Sport and physical education [PE]) on life skills transfer and social processes. Qualitative methods complemented quantitative data through interviews with GOTR stakeholders. METHOD: The participants included 215 girls in GOTR and 692 girls in the same grades and schools who did not participate in GOTR (Sport = 485; PE = 207). They completed self-report measures of life skills transfer, peer and coach relatedness, and coach autonomy support at the season's end. GOTR subsamples of girls, coaches, caregivers, and school personnel participated in focus groups. RESULTS: Girls in GOTR compared favorably to the Sport and PE girls on all life skills-managing emotions, resolving conflicts, helping others, and making intentional decisions-and to the PE girls for all 3 social processes. The GOTR and Sport girls did not differ on coach relatedness and autonomy support, but the Sport girls rated teammate relatedness higher. The GOTR girls' scores on life skills transfer remained stable at a 3-month follow-up assessment. Stakeholders in the focus groups shared corroborating evidence that, through participating in GOTR, girls learn skills that generalize to school and home contexts. CONCLUSION: Using comparison groups, a retention assessment, and mixed methods, the findings provide evidence that GOTR is effective in teaching skills and strategies that generalize to broader life domains. The processes that explain group differences on life skills transfer include GOTR's intentional curriculum of skill-building activities delivered by coaches within a caring and autonomy-supportive climate.

Motivational Climate Profiles, Pubertal Status, and Well-Being Among Female Adolescent Aesthetic Sport Athletes.

PURPOSE: Girls participating in aesthetic sports may be at risk for disordered eating and low self-esteem. Informed by self-determination theory, the authors examined motivational climate profiles to understand how climate dimensions differentially relate to psychological needs satisfaction, self-esteem, and disordered eating. METHODS: Female gymnasts, divers, and figure skaters (N = 183; mean age = 13.5) completed a survey to assess perceptions of the motivational climate, perceived sport competence, autonomy, relatedness, self-esteem, and dieting. Pubertal status was assessed to control for developmental differences. RESULTS: Three profiles emerged: High Important Role/Low Performance, High Effort and Cooperation/High Rivalry, and Low Mastery/High Unequal Recognition and Punishment. A 3 × 2 multivariate analysis of variance revealed profile groups significantly differed on perceived autonomy, coach relatedness, and teammate relatedness. In addition, perceived competence, self-esteem, and dieting significantly differed by pubertal status. For autonomy, the High Important Role/Low Performance group reported the highest scores. For coach and teammate relatedness, the Low Mastery/High Unequal Recognition and Punishment group reported significantly lower scores than the other 2 groups. Postpubertal girls reported lower sport ability and self-esteem and greater dieting. CONCLUSION: Physical maturity and social context were important in explaining girls' psychological needs satisfaction and well-being. Results add to the authors' understanding of the complex nature and influence of the motivational climate.

Girls on the Run: Impact of a Physical Activity Youth Development Program on Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes.

PURPOSE: Girls on the Run is an after-school physical activity-based positive youth development program designed to enhance girls' social, psychological, and physical development. We evaluated the effectiveness of the program by employing a longitudinal design and mixed methods. METHODS: Girls (N = 203; aged 8-11 y) completed survey measures of positive youth development constructs (competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring), physical activity, and sedentary behavior prior to, at the end of, and 3 months after the season. Subsamples of girls, coaches, caregivers, and school personnel participated in focus groups. Coaches completed information about their team's community impact project and number of girls who completed the season-ending 5k. RESULTS: The full sample improved in confidence and connection, whereas girls who started below the preseason average showed the greatest gains from preseason to postseason on all measures, and scores were maintained or continued to improve at follow-up. All stakeholders in focus groups corroborated evidence of season-long improvement in social and emotional behaviors and health outcomes. Involvement in the community impact project contributed to girls' growth in character and empathy skills. CONCLUSION: Findings provide empirical evidence that Girls on the Run is effective in promoting positive youth development, including season-long and lasting change in competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and physical activity, especially among girls who exhibited lower preseason scores than their peers.

Gut Microbiota Composition Is Related to Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Healthy Young Adults.

Bacteria residing in the human gastrointestinal tract has a symbiotic relationship with its host. Animal models have demonstrated a relationship between exercise and gut microbiota composition. This was the first study to explore the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness (maximal oxygen consumption, VO2max) and relative gut microbiota composition (Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio [F/B]) in healthy young adults in a free-living environment. Twenty males and 17 females (25.7 ± 2.2 years), who did not take antibiotics in the last 6 months, volunteered for this study. VO2max was measured using a symptom-limited graded treadmill test. Relative microbiota composition was determined by analyzing DNA extracted from stool samples using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction that specifically measured the quantity of a target gene (16S rRNA) found in Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Relationships between F/B and potentially related dietary, anthropometric, and fitness variables were assessed using correlation analyses with an appropriate Bonferroni adjustment (p < .004). The average F/B ratio in all participants was 0.94 ± 0.03. The F/B ratio was significantly correlated to VO2max (r = .48, p < .003), but no other fitness, nutritional intake, or anthropometric variables (p > .004). VO2max explained ∼22% of the variance of an individual's relative gut bacteria as determined by the F/B ratio. These data support animal findings, demonstrating a relationship between relative human gut microbiota composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy young adults. Gastrointestinal bacteria is integral in regulating a myriad of physiological processes, and greater insight regarding ramifications of exercise and nutrition on gut microbial composition may help guide therapies to promote human health.

Motivational climate dimensions predict youth soccer players' psychosocial well-being over time.

OBJECTIVES: This study tested a longitudinal model of relationships, based on self-determination theory, to determine whether motivational climate dimensions predicted young athletes' psychological need satisfaction and, in turn, personal and social responsibility. DESIGN: We used a longitudinal design. METHOD: Youth soccer players (N = 161; M = 10.8 years-old, SD = 1.0 year) completed a survey at two time points, spaced 4 months apart, on average. RESULTS: Several significant direct effects emerged. First, greater perceptions that coaches punished for mistakes predicted decreases in relatedness with coaches and teammates. Second, greater perceptions of relatedness with coaches and teammates predicted increases in personal and social responsibility. Indirect effects also emerged: (a) punishment for mistakes predicted decreases in personal responsibility and social responsibility, and (b) cooperative learning predicted increases in social responsibility, through effects on coach and teammate relatedness. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that coaches who provide opportunities for collaborative learning and minimize mistake-contingent punishment will foster athletes' sense of connection and enhance their psychosocial well-being.

Retention in Junior Giants, a sport-based youth development program: what factors are associated with intentions to return?

Introduction: While evaluation research shows that physical activity-based youth development (PA-PYD) programs can have a positive impact on social and emotional growth, less is known about which participants return year after year and what factors are associated with their continued participation. The Junior Giants is a sport-based youth development program for 5-18-year-old boys and girls that is non-competitive and free to participate. The 8-week program uses baseball and softball as platforms for teaching life skills and fostering social emotional competencies. This mixed-methods study evaluated quantitative factors associated with intentions to return to the program the following year and qualitative reasons why parents/caregivers intended not to re-enroll their child. Method: Parents/caregivers of Junior Giants participants (N = 8,495) completed online surveys about their child's demographics, social emotional climate and learning, character development, and intentions to return the following year. Results: Descriptive data illustrated that parents/caregivers reported quite positive outcomes and experiences for their child. Chi-square and t-test analyses revealed significant differences (p < .001) between intended returners (n = 7,179, 84.5%) and those who reported no/undecided on returning (n = 1,316, 15.5%). Intended returners were significantly more likely to be identified as Latino and be in their second year of participation. Significant predictors of a binomial logistic regression [χ2 (df = 22) = 1,463.25, p < .001] included age, race/ethnicity, years played, character development, reading, league experiences, physical activity, and perceived support, with small to medium effect sizes. Using responses from a subset of 217 parents/caregivers who reported their child would not return to the program, a thematic analysis resulted in seven themes: Lack of Organization and Communication; Dissatisfied with Coaching, Didn't Learn Baseball/Softball, Not Competitive Enough, Skill Levels Not Matched, Aged Out, and Non-Program Related Reasons. Discussion: Quantitative results contribute to the literature on predictors of retention in youth development programs, while qualitative findings echo common motives cited for dropout in youth sport. Both provide opportunities for reflection and potential changes to future programming.

Actual vs. perceived exertion during active virtual reality game exercise.

Background: Virtual exercise has become more common as emerging and converging technologies make active virtual reality games (AVRGs) a viable mode of exercise for health and fitness. Our lab has previously shown that AVRGs can elicit moderate to vigorous exercise intensities that meet recommended health benefit guidelines. Dissociative attentional focuses during AVRG gameplay have the potential to widen the gap between participants' perception of exertion and actual exertion. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine actual exertion (AEx) vs. perceived exertion (PEx) levels during AVRGs by measuring heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in two different settings. Materials and methods: HR and RPE were collected on participants (N = 32; age 22.6 ± 2.6) during 10 min of gameplay in LabS and GymS using the HTC VIVE with the following games played: Fruit Ninja VR (FNVR), Beat Saber (BS), and Holopoint (HP). Results: Participants exhibited significantly higher levels of AEx compared to reported PEx for all three AVRGs (Intensity): FNVR [AEx = 11.6 ± 1.8 (Light), PEx = 9.0 ± 2.0 (Very Light)], BS [AEx = 11.3 ± 1.7 (Light), PEx = 10.3 ± 2.1 (Very Light)], HP [AEx = 13.1 ± 2.3 (Somewhat Hard), PEx = 12.3 ± 2.4 (Light-Somewhat Hard)]. Additionally, participants playing in the GymS experienced significantly higher levels of AEx [12.4 ± 2.3 (Light-Somewhat Hard)] and PEx [10.8 ± 2.5 (Very Light-Light)] compared to the LabS [AEx = 11.6 ± 1.8 (Light), PEx = 10.3 ± 2.6 (Very Light-Light)]. Conclusion: Perceptions of exertion may be lower than actual exertion during AVRG gameplay, and exertion levels can be influenced by the setting in which AVRGs are played. This may inform VR developers and health clinicians who aim to incorporate exercise/fitness regimens into upcoming 'virtual worlds' currently being developed at large scales (i.e., the "metaverse").

Evaluation of The First Tee in Promoting Positive Youth Development: Group Comparisons and Longitudinal Trends.

PURPOSE: This manuscript represents the 3rd in a series of articles documenting our longitudinal evaluation of The First Tee, a physical activity-based youth development program that uses golf as a vehicle for teaching life skills and enhancing developmental outcomes. Previous phases of our project: (a) established initial data-based evidence of effectiveness through cross-sectional and qualitative methods (Weiss, Stuntz, Bhalla, Bolter, & Price, 2013), and (b) provided validity and reliability for a measure of life skills transfer in 3 studies using mixed methods (Weiss, Bolter, & Kipp, 2014). The purpose of the present phase was to: (a) compare youth in The First Tee to youth in other activities on life skills transfer and developmental outcomes, and (b) examine change and stability across 3 years in life skills transfer among youth in The First Tee. METHOD: In Study 1, youth participating in The First Tee (N = 405) and a comparison group (N = 159) completed measures of key constructs. In Study 2, a longitudinal sample of 192 youth participating in The First Tee completed the life skills transfer measure for 3 consecutive years. RESULTS: Study 1 revealed that youth in The First Tee compared favorably to youth in other activities on 5 of 8 life skills and 6 of 8 developmental outcomes, and Study 2 showed that scores improved or remained stable for life skills transfer over time. CONCLUSION: Results from both studies show that The First Tee is effective in teaching for transfer of life skills and promoting developmental outcomes.

Assessing impact of physical activity-based youth development programs: validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS).

PURPOSE: A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program. METHOD: In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer. RESULTS: Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS. CONCLUSION: RESULTS from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.