A Natural Language Processing and Machine Learning Approach to Identification of Incidental Radiology Findings in Trauma Patients Discharged from the Emergency Department.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Patients undergoing diagnostic imaging studies in the emergency department (ED) commonly have incidental findings, which may represent unrecognized serious medical conditions, including cancer. Recognition of incidental findings frequently relies on manual review of textual radiology reports and can be overlooked in a busy clinical environment. Our study aimed to develop and validate a supervised machine learning model using natural language processing to automate the recognition of incidental findings in radiology reports of patients discharged from the ED. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of computed tomography (CT) reports from trauma patients discharged home across an integrated health system in 2019. Two independent annotators manually labeled CT reports for the presence of an incidental finding as a reference standard. We used regular expressions to derive and validate a random forest model using open-source and machine learning software. Final model performance was assessed across different ED types. RESULTS: The study CT reports were divided into derivation (690 reports) and validation (282 reports) sets, with a prevalence of incidental findings of 22.3%, and 22.7%, respectively. The random forest model had an area under the curve of 0.88 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.84 to 0.92) on the derivation set and 0.92 (95% CI, 0.88 to 0.96) on the validation set. The final model was found to have a sensitivity of 92.2%, a specificity of 79.4%, and a negative predictive value of 97.2%. Similarly, strong model performance was found when stratified to a dedicated trauma center, high-volume, and low-volume community EDs. CONCLUSION: Machine learning and natural language processing can classify incidental findings in CT reports of ED patients with high sensitivity and high negative predictive value across a broad range of ED settings. These findings suggest the utility of natural language processing in automating the review of free-text reports to identify incidental findings and may facilitate interventions to improve timely follow-up.

Prehospital Fluid Administration for Suspected Sepsis in a Large EMS System: Opportunities to Improve Goal Fluid Delivery.

OBJECTIVES: Despite EMS-implemented screening and treatment protocols for suspected sepsis patients, prehospital fluid therapy is variable. We sought to describe prehospital fluid administration in suspected sepsis patients, including demographic and clinical factors associated with fluid outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective cohort of adult patients from a large, county-wide EMS system from January 2018-February 2020 was identified. Patient care reports for suspected sepsis were included, as identified by EMS clinician impression of sepsis, or keywords "sepsis" or "septic" in the narrative. Outcomes were the proportions of suspected sepsis patients for whom intravenous (IV) therapy was attempted and those who received ≥500 mL IV fluid if IV access was successful. Associations between patient demographics and clinical factors with fluid outcomes were estimated with multivariable logistic regression adjusting for transport interval. RESULTS: Of 4,082 suspected sepsis patients identified, the mean patient age was 72.5 (SD 16.2) years, 50.6% were female, and 23.8% were Black. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) transport interval was 16.5 (10.9-23.2) minutes. Of identified patients, 1,920 (47.0%) had IV fluid therapy attempted, and IV access was successful in 1,872 (45.9%). Of those with IV access, 1,061 (56.7%) received ≥500mL of fluid from EMS. In adjusted analyses, female (versus male) sex (odds ratio [OR] 0.79, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.69-0.90), Black (versus White) race (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.49-0.68), and end stage renal disease (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.32-0.82) were negatively associated with attempted IV therapy. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) <90 mmHg (OR 3.89, 95% CI 3.25-4.65) and respiratory rate >20 (OR 1.90, 95% CI 1.61-2.23) were positively associated with attempted IV therapy. Female sex (OR 0.72, 95% CI 0.59-0.88) and congestive heart failure (CHF) (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.40-0.75) were negatively associated with receiving goal fluid volume while SBP <90 mmHg (OR 2.30, 95% CI 1.83-2.88) and abnormal temperature (>100.4 F or <96 F) (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.16-1.73) were positively associated. CONCLUSIONS: Fewer than half of EMS sepsis patients had IV therapy attempted, and of those, approximately half met fluid volume goal, especially when hypotensive and no CHF. Further studies are needed on improving EMS sepsis training and prehospital fluid delivery.

Effectiveness of a Novel Rapid Infusion Device and Clinician Education for Early Fluid Therapy by Emergency Medical Services in Sepsis Patients: A Pre-Post Observational Study.

OBJECTIVE: Emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians are tasked with early fluid resuscitation for patients with sepsis. Traditional methods for prehospital fluid delivery are limited in speed and ease-of-use. We conducted a comparative effectiveness study of a novel rapid infusion device for prehospital fluid delivery in suspected sepsis patients. METHODS: This pre-post observational study evaluated a hand-operated, rapid infusion device in a single large EMS system from July 2021-July 2022. Prior to device deployment, EMS clinicians completed didactic and simulation-based device training. Data were extracted from the EMS electronic health record. Eligible patients included adults with suspected sepsis treated by EMS with intravenous fluids. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients receiving goal fluid volume (at least 500 mL) prior to hospital arrival. Secondary outcomes included in-hospital mortality, disposition, and length of stay. Multivariable logistic regression was used to compare outcomes between 6-month pre- and post-implementation periods (July-December 2021 and February-July 2022, respectively), adjusting for patient demographics, abnormal prehospital vital signs, and EMS transport interval. RESULTS: Of 1,180 eligible patients (552 in the pre-implementation period; 628 in the post-implementation period), the mean age was 72 years old, 45% were female, and 25% were minority race-ethnicity. Median (interquartile range) fluid volume (in mL) increased between the pre- and post-implementation periods (600 [400,1,000] and 850 [500-1,000], respectively). Goal fluid volume was achieved in 70% of pre-implementation patients and 82% of post-implementation patients. In adjusted analysis, post-implementation patients were significantly more likely to receive goal fluid volume than pre-implementation patients (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.00, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.51-2.66). Pre-post in-hospital mortality was not significantly different (aOR 0.91, 95% CI 0.59-1.39). CONCLUSION: In a single EMS system, sepsis education and introduction of a rapid infusion device was associated with achieving goal fluid volume for suspected sepsis. Further research is needed to assess the clinical effectiveness of infusion device implementation to improve sepsis patient outcomes.

Community socioeconomic and urban-rural differences in emergency medical services times for suspected stroke in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVE: Our objectives were to describe time intervals of EMS encounters for suspected stroke patients in North Carolina (NC) and evaluate differences in EMS time intervals by community socioeconomic status (SES) and rurality. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used statewide data on EMS encounters of suspected stroke in NC in 2019. Eligible patients were adults requiring EMS transport to a hospital following a 9-1-1 call for stroke-like symptoms. Incident street addresses were geocoded to census tracts and linked to American Community Survey SES data and to rural-urban commuting area (RUCA) codes. Community SES was defined as high, medium, or low based on tertiles of an SES index. Urban, suburban, and rural tracts were defined by RUCA codes 1, 2-6, and 7-10, respectively. Multivariable quantile regression was used to estimate how the median and 90th percentile of EMS time intervals varied by community SES and rurality, adjusting for each other; patient age, gender, and race/ethnicity; and incident characteristics. RESULTS: We identified 17,117 eligible EMS encounters of suspected stroke from 2028 census tracts. The population was 65% 65+ years old; 55% female; and 69% Non-Hispanic White. Median response, scene, and transport times were 8 (interquartile range, IQR 6-11) min, 16 (IQR 12-20) min, and 14 (IQR 9-22) minutes, respectively. In quantile regression adjusted for patient demographics, minimal differences were observed for median response and scene times by community SES and rurality. The largest median differences were observed for transport times in rural (6.7 min, 95% CI 5.8, 7.6) and suburban (4.7 min, 95% CI 4.2, 5.1) tracts compared to urban tracts. Adjusted rural-urban differences in 90th percentile transport times were substantially greater (16.0 min, 95% CI 14.5, 17.5). Low SES was modesty associated with shorter median (-3.3 min, 95% CI -3.8, -2.9) and 90th percentile (-3.0 min, 95% CI -4.0, -2.0) transport times compared to high SES tracts. CONCLUSIONS: While community-level factors were not strongly associated with EMS response and scene times for stroke, transport times were significantly longer rural tracts and modestly shorter in low SES tracts, accounting for patient demographics. Further research is needed on the role of community socioeconomic deprivation and rurality in contributing to delays in prehospital stroke care.

Community Socioeconomic and Urban-Rural Disparities in Prehospital Notification of Stroke by Emergency Medical Services in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVES: Notification by emergency medical services (EMS) to the destination hospital of an incoming suspected stroke patient is associated with timelier in-hospital evaluation and treatment. Current data on adherence to this evidence-based best practice are limited, however. We examined the frequency of EMS stroke prenotification in North Carolina by community socioeconomic status (SES) and rurality. METHODS: Using a statewide database of EMS patient care reports, we selected 9-1-1 responses in 2019 with an EMS provider impression of stroke or documented stroke care protocol use. Eligible patients were 18 years old and older with a completed prehospital stroke screen. Incident street addresses were geocoded to North Carolina census tracts and linked to American Community Survey socioeconomic data and urban-rural commuting area codes. High, medium, and low SES tracts were defined by SES index tertiles. Tracts were classified as urban, suburban, and rural. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate independent associations between tract-level SES and rurality with EMS prenotification, adjusting for patient age, sex, and race/ethnicity; duration of symptoms; incident day of week and time of day; 9-1-1 dispatch complaint; EMS provider primary impression; and prehospital stroke screen interpretation. RESULTS: The cohort of 9527 eligible incidents was mostly at least 65 years old (65%), female (55%), and non-Hispanic White (71%). EMS prenotification occurred in 2783 (29%) patients. Prenotification in low SES tracts (27%) occurred less often than in medium (30%) and high (32%) SES tracts. Rural tracts had the lowest frequency (21%) compared with suburban (28%) and urban (31%) tracts. In adjusted analyses, EMS prenotification was less likely in low SES (vs high SES; odds ratio 0.76, 95% confidence interval 0.67-0.88) and rural (vs urban; odds ratio 0.64, 95% confidence interval 0.52-0.77) tracts. CONCLUSIONS: Across a large, diverse population, EMS prenotification occurred in only one-third of suspected stroke patients. Furthermore, low SES and rural tracts were independently associated with a lower likelihood of prehospital notification. These findings suggest the need for education and quality improvement initiatives to increase EMS stroke prenotification, particularly in underserved communities.

COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of EMS Physicians in a Community Response Effort.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a worldwide historical event that will continue to affect nearly every aspect of ordinary life, including affecting our economic, political, and healthcare eco-systems. An effective pandemic response demands a coordinated and integrated response across community healthcare stakeholders, including Public Health and Emergency Management Officials. EMS systems are in a unique position and perform an essential role on the frontlines of COVID-19, including facilitating coordination of response efforts to COVID-19 within their communities while supporting public health mitigation efforts to slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2. EMS physicians serve their communities at a unique intersection as clinical leaders, population health experts, and advocates. This paper examines and recommends crucial roles for EMS physician leaders as communities work together in pandemic response.

Opportunities for Emergency Medical Services Intervention to Prevent Opioid Overdose Mortality.

OBJECTIVES: The opioid crisis is a growing cause of mortality in the United States and may be mitigated by innovative approaches to identifying individuals at-risk of fatal opioid overdose. We examined Emergency Medical Services (EMS) utilization among a cohort of individuals who died from opioid overdose in order to identify potential opportunities for intervention. Methods: Individuals who died of unintentional opioid overdose in a large North Carolina county between 01/01/2014 and 12/31/2016 were studied in a retrospective cohort. Death records obtained from North Carolina Vital Records were linked to EMS patient care records obtained from the county EMS System in order to describe the EMS encounters of each decedent in the year preceding their death. Patient demographics and EMS encounters were assessed to identify encounter characteristics that may be targeted for intervention. Chi-square tests and odds ratios were used to evaluate and characterize the statistical significance of differences in EMS utilization. Results: Of the 218 individuals who died from unintentional opioid overdose in the study interval, 30% (n = 66) utilized EMS in the year before their death and 17% (n = 38) had at least one EMS encounter with documented drug or alcohol use (i.e. "drug-related encounter"). The mean age at death was 38 (range 19-74) years, 30% were female, 89% were White, and 8% were Black/African American. Factors associated with higher incidence of EMS utilization included age (P<.001), gender (P=.006), and race (P<.001). Decedents aged 56-65 had the highest EMS utilization (47%) and patients aged <25 and 25-35 had more drug-related EMS encounters (29% and 20%, respectively). The most common reasons for EMS utilization were "other medical" (27%), "non-traumatic pain" (20%), "traumatic injury" (16%), and "poisoning/drug ingestion" (14%). Drug or alcohol use was documented by EMS in 33% of all encounters and an opioid prescription was reported in 22% of encounters. Conclusions: Nearly one-third of individuals who died from accidental opioid overdose utilized EMS in the year before their death and nearly one-fifth had a drug-related encounter. EMS encounters may present an opportunity to identify individuals at-risk of opioid overdose and, ultimately, reduce overdose mortality.

Characteristics, clinical care, and disposition barriers for mental health patients boarding in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Lack of mental health resources, such as inpatient psychiatric beds, has increased frequency and duration of boarding for mental health patients presenting to U.S. emergency departments (EDs). The purpose of this study is to describe characteristics of mental health patients with an ED length of stay of one week or longer and to identify barriers to their disposition. METHODS: This study was conducted in an academic ED in which emergency psychiatric evaluations and care are provided by a Psychiatric Emergency Services (PES) team contained within the Department of Emergency Medicine. Prolonged boarding was defined as an ED length of stay of 7 days or more. Pediatric, adult, and geriatric mental health patients with prolonged ED boarding from January 1 to August 31, 2019 were included. This study includes prospective data collection of the boarding group and retrospective identification and data collection of a comparison group of non-barding patients over the same 8-month period to compare patient characteristics and outcomes for each group. RESULTS: Between January 1 and August 31, 2019, the PES team completed 2,745 new assessments of mental health patients, of whom 39 met criteria for prolonged ED boarding. The following characteristics were associated with boarding: child (8%), male (64%), having Medicaid (49%) or both Medicaid and Medicare (18%), and having either a neurodevelopmental (15%) or neurocognitive disorder (15%) with a median stay of 18 days. Barriers to discharge included being declined from all state inpatient psychiatric hospitals (69%), declined from community living environments (21%), or declined from both (10%). The most common ED non-boarding patients were: Caucasian (64%), have a diagnosis of unspecified mental disorder (including suicidal ideation) or other specified mental disorder (59%) and have private insurance (42%) with a median stay of 1 day. CONCLUSION: In this study of mental health patients with prolonged ED stays, the primary barrier to disposition was the lack of patient acceptance to inpatient psychiatric hospitals, community settings, or other housing. Early identification of potential prolonged boarding, quality treatment and care for those patients, and effective case management, may resolve the ongoing challenges of boarding within the ED.

Assessment of Key Health and Wellness Indicators Among North Carolina Emergency Medical Service Providers.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to characterize key health indicators in Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel and identify areas for intervention in order to ensure a strong and capable emergency health workforce. METHODS: Participants were EMS personnel delivering patients to 4 regional tertiary care emergency departments within North Carolina (NC). After transferring patient care and agreeing to participate, height, weight, and blood pressure (BP) measurements were recorded and each participant completed a questionnaire regarding demographics, activity levels, alcohol consumption, smoking, and medical history. Data were analyzed descriptively. RESULTS: A sample of 452 EMS personnel from across NC was enrolled. The cohort was predominantly male (74.1%) and employed full-time (85.5%). The prevalence of overweight and obesity (80.3%) among EMS personnel was higher than the NC population (65.6%) and the general United States (US) population (70.8%). A previous diagnosis of high BP was reported by only 18.3% of participants, but 65.1% had elevated BP at the time of measurement. Alcohol consumption in the past 30 days among participants (55.4%) was slightly higher than state estimates (48.0%) and similar to national estimates (57.1%). However, heavy drinking (22.2%) and binge drinking (28.8%) were reported at much higher rates than state (5.6% and 15.2%, respectively) and national (6.6% and 18.3%, respectively) estimates. The prevalence of current smoking (21.5%) and quit attempts (48.8%) in the cohort was similar to state (21.8% and 55.0%, respectively) and national (21.2% and 55.7%, respectively) estimates. Likewise, the proportion of EMS providers meeting the Center for Disease Control's activity guidelines (49.6%) was similar to that found in the NC (46.8%) and the general US (48.0%) populations. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a high prevalence of overweight and obesity, heavy drinking, binge drinking, and high BP among NC EMS personnel. Similar to fire service personnel, these rates are higher than the general US population. As such, they suggest areas where intervention would have the greatest positive impact on the health and performance of the EMS workforce.

Availability of Hospital Resources and Specialty Services for Stroke Care in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVES: Effective regionalization of acute stroke care requires assessment and coordination of limited hospital resources. We described the availability of stroke-specific hospital resources (neurology specialty physicians and neuro-intensive care unit [neuro-ICU] bed capacity) for North Carolina overall and by region and population density. We also assessed daily trends in hospital bed availability. METHODS: This statewide descriptive study was conducted with data from the State Medical Asset Resource Tracking Tool (SMARTT), a Web-based system used by North Carolina to track available medical resources within the state. The SMARTT system was queried for stroke-specific physician and bed resources at each North Carolina hospital during a 1-year period (June 2015-May 2016), including daily availability of neuro-ICU beds. We compared hospital resources by geographic region and population density (metropolitan, urban, and rural). RESULTS: Data from 108 acute care hospitals located in 75 of 100 counties in North Carolina were included in the analysis. Fifty-seven percent of hospitals had no neurology specialty physicians. Western and eastern North Carolina had the lowest prevalence of these physicians. Most hospitals (88%) had general ICUs, whereas only 17 hospitals (16%) had neuro-ICUs. Neuro-ICUs were concentrated in metropolitan areas and in central North Carolina. On average, there were 276 general ICU and 27 neuro-ICU beds available statewide each day. Daily neuro-ICU bed availability was lowest in eastern and southeastern regions and during the week compared with weekends. CONCLUSIONS: In North Carolina, stroke-specific hospital subspecialists and resources are not distributed evenly across the state. Daily bed availability, particularly in neuro-ICUs, is lacking in rural areas and noncentral regions and appears to decrease on weekdays. Regionalization of stroke care needs to consider the geographic distribution and daily variability of hospital resources.

Effect of Dial-Out Prefix Change on 9-1-1 Calls at a Large State University.

BACKGROUND: Accessing the emergency medical services system via 9-1-1 operators is an effective way for patients to seek urgent health care; however, technological advances and telecommunication practices inundate the 9-1-1 and emergency services infrastructure with unintentional calls that delay response efforts to legitimate medical emergencies. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the change in university-wide dial-out prefix from "9" to "7" reduced unnecessary calls to a 9-1-1 call center. METHODS: This is a retrospective study conducted utilizing information obtained from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) Department of Public Safety (DPS) call center. Call center calls received during pre-change, intervening, and post-change periods were included in the study. The cost savings, defined in time and money, resulting from the prefix change were also examined. RESULTS: A total of 33,646 calls were made during the study period (January 11, 2010 through December 31, 2012) and included in the analysis. The prefix change was found to reduce the rate of invalid calls to the call center by 319 calls per month, resulting in a 43% reduction in total calls to the call center while preserving the rate of valid calls. The largest decrease occurred in hang-up calls (a decrease of 232 calls per month), especially those originating from the university. The prefix change was found to save the UNC DPS telecommunications division approximately $798.82 per month and the police officer division approximately $3,874.95 per month. CONCLUSION: A prefix change was not only beneficial to the UNC community but it also has potentially wide-reaching effects. A reduction of invalid 9-1-1 calls translates to telecommunicators having more time available to handle true emergencies, phone lines remaining available for true emergencies, and police officers dedicating more time and effort to matters that necessitate officer assistance. Based on the call decrease seen with the prefix change, this study may be used as evidence to advocate for a change of dial-out codes beginning with "9."

Repeated Emergency Medical Services Use by Older Adults: Analysis of a Comprehensive Statewide Database.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to characterize repeated emergency medical services (EMS) transports among older adults across a large and socioeconomically diverse region. METHODS: Using the North Carolina Prehospital Medical Information System, we analyzed the frequency of repeated EMS transports within 30 days of an index EMS transport among adults aged 65 years and older from 2010 to 2015. We used multivariable logistic regressions to determine characteristics associated with repeated EMS transport. RESULTS: During the 6-year period, EMS performed 1,711,669 transports for 689,664 unique older adults in North Carolina. Of these, 303,099 transports (17.7%) were followed by another transport of the same patient within 30 days. The key characteristics associated with an increased adjusted odds ratio of repeated transport within 30 days include transport from an institutionalized setting (odds ratio [OR] 1.42; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.38 to 1.47), blacks compared with whites (OR 1.29; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.33), a dispatch complaint of psychiatric problems (OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.25 to 1.52), back pain (OR 1.35; 95% CI 1.26 to 1.45), breathing problems (OR 1.21; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.30), and diabetic problems (OR 1.14; 95% CI 1.06 to 1.22). Falls accounted for 15.6% of all transports and had a modest association with repeated transports (OR 1.07; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.14). CONCLUSION: More than 1 in 6 EMS transports of older adults in North Carolina are followed by a repeated transport of the same patient within 30 days. Patient characteristics and chief complaints may identify increased risk for repeated transport and suggest the potential for targeted interventions to improve outcomes and manage EMS use.

Prehospital Fluid Administration in Trauma Patients: A Survey of State Protocols.

OBJECTIVE: The optimal resuscitation approach during the initial treatment of hypotensive trauma patients remains unknown, but some clinical trials have observed a survival benefit from restricting fluid administration prior to definitive hemorrhage control. We sought to characterize emergency medical services (EMS) protocols for the administration of intravenous fluids in this setting. METHODS: Publicly accessible statewide EMS protocols for the treatment of hypotensive trauma patients were included and characterized by: 1) goal of fluid administration, 2) dosing strategy, 3) maximum dose, 4) type of fluid, and 5) specific protocols for head trauma, if present. RESULTS: Of the 27 states with a publicly available, statewide protocol, 21 have a numeric systolic blood pressure (SBP) target for resuscitation. Of these, 16 describe a goal of maintaining SBP ≥90 mmHg with or without additional goals, three specify a goal that is less than 90 mmHg, and two specify a goal ≥100 mHg. Dosing strategies also vary and include both standard bolus strategies (200 mL, 250 mL, 500 mL, and 1 L with repeat) as well as weight-based strategies (20 mL/kg). Nine states specify a maximum dose of 2 L without medical control. Fifteen protocols recommend the use of normal saline, 1 recommends the use of lactated Ringer's, and 11 recommend the use of either normal saline or lactated Ringer's. Nine states have distinct protocols for patients with head trauma, all of which indicate maintaining a higher SBP than for trauma patients without head trauma. CONCLUSION: State EMS protocols for fluid administration for hypotensive trauma patients vary in regard to SBP goal, fluid dose, and fluid type. Clinical trials to determine the optimal use of intravenous fluids for hypotensive trauma patients are needed to define the optimal approach.

Evaluation of the Implementation of the Trauma Triage and Destination Plan on the Field Triage of Injured Patients in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVE: Timely triage and appropriate destination decision making for injured patients are central challenges faced by emergency medical services (EMS) systems. In 2010, North Carolina (NC) adopted a statewide Trauma Triage and Destination Plan (TTDP) based on the CDC's Field Triage Guidelines to better address these challenges. We sought to characterize the implementation of these guidelines by quantifying their effect on multiple metrics of patient care. METHODS: We employed a retrospective pre-post study design utilizing a statewide EMS medical record database. We assessed several metrics of patient care-including changes in destination choice, appropriateness of EMS destination, transit time to first hospital, transit time to definitive care, and others-in a six-month period in the year before and after the implementation of the guidelines. RESULTS: We evaluated a total of 190,307 EMS encounters pre- (n = 93,927) and post-implementation (n = 96,380). Among all patients, there was not a significant difference in the percentage transported to a community hospital or Level I, II, or III trauma center as their first destination. Among those patients meeting TTDP guidelines for transport to a trauma center, the number transported to a Level I or II trauma center decreased 1.0% from 30.6% (n = 2,911) to 29.6% (n = 2,954) (95% CI: -0.2%, 2.2%). Those transported to a Level I trauma center decreased 0.4% from 21.2% to 20.8% in the post-period (95% CI: -0.7%, 1.5%). There were also no significant changes in EMS scene times (14.0 pre-, 14.1 post-) and transport times (12.9 pre-, 13.0 post-). While scene distance from a Level I trauma center showed a decreased likelihood of transport to that center, there was an overall post-implementation increase of 2.5% from 18.0% to 20.5% (95% CI: -3.6%, -1.3%) in transport to a Level I trauma center among patients meeting anatomic criteria across all distance ranges. CONCLUSIONS: We found that implementation of region-specific destination plans based on the Field Triage Guidelines had little effect on selected hospital destination, scene times, transport times, and other metrics of EMS decision making and effectiveness. We suspect this is due to delays in information dissemination and adoption by field providers.

Survey of Hospital Employees' Personal Preparedness and Willingness to Work Following a Disaster.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about the personal readiness of hospital staff for disasters. As many as 30% of hospital staff say that they plan not to report for work during a large-scale disaster. We sought to understand the personal disaster preparedness for hospital staff. METHODS: Surveys were distributed to the staff of a large academic tertiary-care hospital by either a paper-based version distributed through the departmental safety coordinators or a Web-based version distributed through employee e-mail services, depending on employee familiarity with and access to computer services. Surveys assessed the demographic variables and characteristics of personal readiness for disaster. RESULTS: Of the individuals who accessed the survey, 1334 (95.9%) enrolled in it. Women made up 75% of the respondents, with a mean age of 43 years. Respondents had worked at the hospital an average of 9 years, with the majority (90%) being full-time employees. Most households (93%) reported ≤4 members, 6% supported a person with special medical needs, and 17% were headed by a single parent. A small number (24%) of respondents reported an established meeting place for reuniting households during a disaster. Many reported stockpiling a 3-day supply of food (86%) and a 3-day supply of water (51%). Eighteen percent of respondents were not aware of workplace evacuation plans. Most respondents were willing to report to work for natural disasters (eg, tornado, snowstorm; all categories >65%), but fewer respondents were willing to report during events such as an influenza epidemic (54%), a biological outbreak (41%), a chemical exposure, (40%), or a radiation exposure (39%). Multivariate analysis revealed being female, having a child in the household younger than 6 years old, and having a child in school lowered the likelihood of being willing to report to work in two or more event types, whereas pet ownership, being a clinical healthcare worker, and being familiar with the work emergency plan increased the likelihood. CONCLUSIONS: Despite being employed at the same facility for a prolonged period, employees reported being willing to report for work at a low rate in a variety of disasters. Subjects reported suboptimal personal preparedness for disaster, which may further limit the number of staff who will report for work. Hospitals should promote personal disaster preparedness for staff and explore staffing models with an understanding of reduced staff availability during disasters.

Over-commitment of EMS personnel in North Carolina with implications for disaster planning.

BACKGROUND: While large-scale disasters are uncommon, our society relies on emergency personnel to be available to respond and act. Faith in their availability may lead to a false sense of security. Many emergency personnel obligate themselves to more than one agency and so may be overcommitted, leaving agencies with unfilled positions in a disaster. We sought to describe the frequency of overcommitment of emergency medical services (EMS) personnel in North Carolina. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study utilizing the Credentialing Information System (CIS) of the North Carolina Office of EMS. The CIS database manages demographic and certification information for all EMS personnel in North Carolina. The state is divided into 100 EMS systems based on county boundaries. Utilizing de-identified provider data from the CIS, we collected system(s) affiliation(s) and level of certification. To calculate an overcommitment rate per system, we divided the number of personnel with more than one system affiliation by total number of system roster personnel. To compare urbanicity and certification level with overcommitment, analysis of variance and the chi-square test were used, respectively. RESULTS: North Carolina credentials 14,717 EMS providers (8,346 EMT, 1,709 EMT-intermediate (EMT-I), 4,662 EMT-paramedic (EMT-P)). Of these, 10,928 (74%) are affiliated with a single system. Of the 3,789 committed to more than one system, 3,020 (21%) were committed to two systems, 571 (4%) to three, 138 (1%) to four, and 60 (<1%) to five or more. EMT-Is and EMT-Ps were more likely to be overcommitted when compared to EMTs (37, 32, 20% respectively, p < 0.0001). Statewide, the median overcommitment rate for EMS systems was 24% (IQR 16-37%). Personnel working in systems servicing less densely populated areas were more likely to be overcommitted: 33% wilderness, 29% rural, 20% suburban and 11% urban (p < 0.0001). Additionally, 40% wilderness, 23% rural, 4% suburban, and 0% urban systems had >37% of their personnel engaged in 9-1-1 response in more than one system. CONCLUSION: Many EMS personnel have multiple EMS commitments. Disaster planners and emergency managers should consider overcommitment of emergency responders when calculating the work force on which they can rely.

Accuracy of EMS Trauma Transport Destination Plans in North Carolina.

Abstract Objective. Planning for time-sensitive injury may allow emergency medical services (EMS) systems to more accurately triage patients meeting accepted criteria to facilities most capable of providing life-saving treatment. In 2010, North Carolina (NC) implemented statewide Trauma Triage and Destination Plans (TTDPs) in all 100 of North Carolina's county-defined EMS systems. Each system was responsible for identifying the specific destination hospitals with appropriate resources to treat trauma patients. We sought to characterize the accuracy of their hospital designations. Methods. In this cross-sectional study, we collected TTDPs for each county-defined EMS system, including their assigned hospital capabilities (i.e., trauma center or community hospital). We conducted a survey with each EMS system to determine how their TTDP was constructed and maintained, as well as with each TTDP-designated hospital to verify their capabilities. We determined the accuracy of the EMS assigned hospital designations by comparing them to the hospital's reported capabilities. Results. The 100 NC EMS systems provided 380 designations for 112 hospitals. TTDPs were created by EMS administrators and medical directors, with only 55% of EMS systems engaging a hospital representative in the plan creation. Compared to the actual hospital capabilities, 97% of the EMS TTDP designations were correct. Twelve hospital designations were incorrect and the majority (10) overestimated hospital capabilities. Of the 100 EMS systems, 7 misclassified hospitals in their TTDP. EMS systems that did not verify their local hospitals' capabilities during TTDP development were more likely to incorrectly categorize a hospital's capabilities (p = 0.001). Conclusions. A small number of EMS systems misclassified hospitals in their TTDP, but most plans accurately reflected hospital capabilities. Misclassification occurred more often in systems that did not consult local hospitals prior to developing their TTDP. The potential of the TTDP to improve communication between EMS agencies and the facilities with which they work has not been fully realized. EMS agencies or systems should verify local hospital capabilities when engaging in destination planning efforts.

Comparison of brief health literacy screens in the emergency department.

Measuring health literacy efficiently yet accurately is of interest both clinically and in research. The authors examined 6 brief health literacy measures and compared their categorization of patient health literacy levels and their comparative associations with patients' health status. The authors assessed 400 emergency department patients with the Short Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults, the Newest Vital Sign, Single Item Literacy Screen, brief screening questions, Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in Medicine-Revised, and the Medical Term Recognition Test. The authors analyzed data using Spearman's correlation coefficients and ran separate logistic regressions for each instrument for patient self-reported health status. Tests differed in the proportion of patients' skills classified as adequate, but all instruments were significantly correlated; instruments targeting similar skills were more strongly correlated. Scoring poorly on any instrument was significantly associated with worse health status after adjusting for age, sex and race, with a score in the combined inadequate/marginal category on the Short Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults carrying the largest risk (OR = 2.94, 95% CI [1.23, 7.05]). Future research will need to further elaborate instrument differences in predicting different outcomes.

A prospective cohort study of medication reconciliation using pharmacy technicians in the emergency department to reduce medication errors among admitted patients.

BACKGROUND: The collection of a complete, verified medication history is essential to patient safety. The involvement of clinical pharmacists has been shown to improve the completeness and accuracy of medication histories; however, to our knowledge, involvement of pharmacy technicians has not been studied. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine whether verification of medication histories by pharmacy technicians in the emergency department (ED) would result in fewer errors in inpatient medication regimens compared to verification by the admitting physician team. METHODS: We performed a prospective cohort study of adult ED patients admitted for continuing care. In the intervention group, medication reconciliation was performed by pharmacy technicians in the ED before the creation of physician admitting orders. In the control group, pharmacy technicians conducted their history taking later, after admission. Initial admitting orders were then compared to the pharmacy technicians' medication reconciliation taken before admission (intervention group) or after admission (control group). Medication discrepancies were classified and determined to be justified or unjustified. Unjustified discrepancies were rated for harm potential. RESULTS: In our cohort of 113 intervention and 75 control subjects, the mean age was 55 years (standard deviation [SD] 16 years); 96 patients (51%) were male. In the intervention group, 566 changes to home medications were observed on admission; 352 (62%) were unjustified. Among controls, 406 changes to home medications were observed; 228 (56%) were unjustified. This difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.0586). The rate of unjustified medication changes per patient was likewise not significantly different (3.14 [SD 2.98] in interventions vs. 3.17 [SD 2.81] in controls; p = 0.9570). The rate of medical errors did not differ between study groups, nor did severity ratings of unjustified changes. CONCLUSIONS: Medication reconciliation by pharmacy technicians in the ED did not lead to a significant reduction in unjustified medication discrepancies.

Out-of-hospital stroke screen accuracy in a state with an emergency medical services protocol for routing patients to acute stroke centers.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Emergency medical services (EMS) protocols, which route patients with suspected stroke to stroke centers, rely on the use of accurate stroke screening criteria. Our goal is to conduct a statewide EMS agency evaluation of the accuracies of the Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale (CPSS) and the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS) for identifying acute stroke patients. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study in North Carolina by linking a statewide EMS database to a hospital database, using validated deterministic matching. We compared EMS CPSS or LAPSS results (positive or negative) to the emergency department diagnosis International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes. We calculated sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative likelihood ratios for the EMS diagnosis of stroke, using each screening tool. RESULTS: We included 1,217 CPSS patients and 1,225 LAPSS patients evaluated by 117 EMS agencies from 94 North Carolina counties. Most EMS agencies contributing data had high annual patient volumes and were governmental agencies with nonvolunteer, emergency medical technician-paramedic service level providers. The CPSS had a sensitivity of 80% (95% confidence interval [CI] 77% to 83%) versus 74% (95% CI 71% to 77%) for the LAPSS. Each had a specificity of 48% (CPSS 95% CI 44% to 52%; LAPSS 95% CI 43% to 53%). CONCLUSION: The CPSS and LAPSS had similar test characteristics, with each having only limited specificity. Development of stroke screening scales that optimize both sensitivity and specificity is required if these are to be used to determine transport diversion to acute stroke centers.